HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY.
RULES AND EXERCISES
ON
ENGLISH COMPOSITION.
BY THE
REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M.A.,
HEAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL.
[Illustration: QUI LEGIT REGIT]
THE AUTHOR'S COPYRIGHT EDITION.
BOSTON:
ROBERTS BROTHERS.
1883.
UNIVERSITY PRESS: JOHN WILSON & SON.
CAMBRIDGE.
PREFACE.
Almost every English boy can be taught to write clearly, so far at
least as clearness depends upon the arrangement of words. Force,
elegance, and variety of style are more difficult to teach, and far
more difficult to learn; but clear writing can be reduced to rules. To
teach the art of writing clearly is the main object of these Rules and
Exercises.
Ambiguity may arise, not only from bad arrangement, but also from
other causes—from the misuse of single words, and from confused
thought. These causes are not removable by definite rules, and
therefore, though not neglected, are not prominently considered in
this book. My object rather is to point out some few continually
recurring causes of ambiguity, and to suggest definite remedies in
each case. Speeches in Parliament, newspaper narratives and articles,
and, above all, resolutions at public meetings, furnish abundant
instances of obscurity arising from the monotonous neglect of some
dozen simple rules.
The art of writing forcibly is, of course, a valuable
acquisition—almost as valuable as the art of writing clearly. But
forcible expression is not, like clear expression, a mere question of
mechanism and of the manipulation of words; it is a much higher power,
and implies much more.
Writing clearly does not imply thinking clearly. A man may think and
reason as obscurely as Dogberry himself, but he may (though it is not
probable that he will) be able to write clearly for all that. Writing
clearly—so far as arrangement of words is concerned—is a mere matter
of adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs, placed
and repeated according to definite rules.[1] Even obscure or illogical
thought can be clearly expressed; indeed, the transparent medium of
clear writing is not least beneficial when it reveals the illogical
nature of the meaning beneath it.
On the other hand, if a man is to write forcibly, he must (to use a
well-known illustration) describe Jerusalem as "sown with salt," not
as "captured," and the Jews not as being "subdued" but as "almost
exterminated" by Titus. But what does this imply? It implies
knowledge, and very often a great deal of knowledge, and it implies
also a vivid imagination. The writer must have eyes to see the vivid
side of everything, as well as words to describe what he sees. Hence
forcible writing, and of course tasteful writing also, is far less a
matter of rules than is clear writing; and hence, though forcible
writing is exemplified in the exercises, clear writing occupies most
of the space devoted to the rules.
Boys who are studying Latin and Greek stand in especial need of help
to enable them to write a long English sentence clearly. The periods
of Thucydides and Cicero are not easily rendered into our idiom
without some knowledge of the links that connect an English sentence.
There is scarcely any better training, rhetorical as well as logical,
than the task of construing Thucydides into genuine English; but the
flat, vague, long-winded Greek-English and Latin-English imposture
that is often tolerated in our examinations and is allowed to pass
current for genuine English, diminishes instead of increasing the
power that our pupils should possess over their native language. By
getting marks at school and college for construing good Greek and
Latin into bad English, our pupils systematically unlearn what they
may have been allowed to pick up from Milton and from Shakespeare.
I must acknowledge very large obligations to Professor Bain's treatise
on "English Composition and Rhetoric," and also to his English
Grammar. I have not always been able to agree with Professor Bain as
to matters of taste; but I find it difficult to express my admiration
for the systematic thoroughness and suggestiveness of his book on
Composition. In particular, Professor Bain's rule on the use of "that"
and "which" (see Rule 8) deserves to be better known.[2] The ambiguity
produced by the confusion between these two forms of the Relative is
not a mere fiction of pedants; it is practically serious. Take, for
instance, the following sentence, which appeared lately in one of our
ablest weekly periodicals: "There are a good many Radical members in
the House who cannot forgive the Prime Minister for being a
Christian." Twenty years hence, who is to say whether the meaning is
"and they, i.e. all the Radical members in the House," or "there
are a good many Radical members of the House that cannot &c."?
Professor Bain, apparently admitting no exceptions to his useful rule,
amends many sentences in a manner that seems to me intolerably harsh.
Therefore, while laying due stress on the utility of the rule, I have
endeavoured to point out and explain the exceptions.
The rules are stated as briefly as possible, and are intended not so
much for use by themselves as for reference while the pupil is working
at the exercises. Consequently, there is no attempt to prove the rules
by accumulations of examples. The few examples that are given, are
given not to prove, but to illustrate the rules. The exercises are
intended to be written out and revised, as exercises usually are; but
they may also be used for vivâ voce instruction. The books being
shut, the pupils, with their written exercises before them, may be
questioned as to the reasons for the several alterations they have
made. Experienced teachers will not require any explanation of the
arrangement or rather non-arrangement of the exercises. They have been
purposely mixed together unclassified to prevent the pupil from
relying upon anything but his own common sense and industry, to show
him what is the fault in each case, and how it is to be amended.
Besides references to the rules, notes are attached to each sentence,
so that the exercises ought not to present any difficulty to a
painstaking boy of twelve or thirteen, provided he has first been
fairly trained in English grammar.
The "Continuous Extracts" present rather more difficulty, and are
intended for boys somewhat older than those for whom the Exercises are
intended. The attempt to modernize, and clarify, so to speak, the
style of Burnet, Clarendon, and Bishop Butler,[3] may appear
ambitious, and perhaps requires some explanation. My object has, of
course, not been to improve upon the style of these authors, but to
show how their meaning might be expressed more clearly in modern
English. The charm of the style is necessarily lost, but if the loss
is recognized both by teacher and pupil, there is nothing, in my
opinion, to counterbalance the obvious utility of such exercises.
Professor Bain speaks to the same effect:[4] "For an English exercise,
the matter should in some way or other be supplied, and the pupil
disciplined in giving it expression. I know of no better method than
to prescribe passages containing good matter, but in some respects
imperfectly worded, to be amended according to the laws and the
proprieties of style. Our older writers might be extensively, though
not exclusively, drawn upon for this purpose."
To some of the friends whose help has been already acknowledged in
"English Lessons for English People," I am indebted for further help
in revising these pages. I desire to express especial obligations to
the Rev. J. H. Lupton, late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge,
and Second Master of St. Paul's School, for copious and valuable
suggestions; also to several of my colleagues at the City of London
School, among whom I must mention in particular the Rev. A. R. Vardy,
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
* * * * *
Before electrotyping the Fourth and Revised Edition, I wish to say one
word as to the manner in which this book has been used by my highest
class, as a collection of Rules for reference in their construing
lessons. In construing, from Thucydides especially, I have found Rules
5, 30, 34, 36, 37, and 40_a_, of great use. The rules about Metaphor
and Climax have also been useful in correcting faults of taste in
their Latin and Greek compositions. I have hopes that, used in this
way, this little book may be of service to the highest as well as to
the middle classes of our schools.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Punctuation is fully discussed in most English Grammars, and is
therefore referred to in this book only so far as is necessary to
point out the slovenly fault of trusting too much to punctuation, and
too little to arrangement.
[2] Before meeting with Professor Bain's rule, I had shown that the
difference between the Relatives is generally observed by Shakespeare.
See "Shakespearian Grammar," paragraph 259.
[3] Sir Archibald Alison stands on a very different footing. The
extracts from this author are intended to exhibit the dangers of
verbosity and exaggeration.
[4] "English Composition and Rhetoric," p. vii.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
INDEX OF RULES 11-13
RULES 14-40
SHORT EXERCISES 41-63
CONTINUOUS EXERCISES—CLARENDON 64-70
" " BURNET 70-73
" " BUTLER 74-75
" " SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON 76-78
INDEX OF RULES.
I. CLEARNESS AND FORCE.
WORDS.
1. Use words in their proper sense.
2. Avoid exaggerations.
3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing."
4. Be careful in the use of "not … and," "any," "but," "only," "not
… or," "that."
4 a. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e.g. "certain."
5. Be careful in the use of "he," "it," "they," "these," &c.
6. Report a speech in the First Person, where necessary to avoid
ambiguity.
6 a. Use the Third Person where the exact words of the speaker are
not intended to be given.
6 b. Omission of "that" in a speech in the Third Person.
7. When you use a Participle implying "when," "while," "though," or
"that," show clearly by the context what is implied.
8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who" or "which," if the
meaning is "and he" or "and it," "for he" or "for it." In other cases
use "that," if euphony allows. Exceptions.
9. Do not use "and which" for "which."
10. Equivalents for the Relative: (a) Participle or Adjective; (b)
Infinitive; (c) "Whereby," "whereto," &c.; (d) "If a man;" (e)
"And he," "and this," &c.; (f) "what;" (g) omission of Relative.
10 a'. Repeat the Antecedent before the Relative, where the
non-repetition causes any ambiguity. See 38.
11. Use particular for general terms. Avoid abstract Nouns.
11 a. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used.
12. Use particular persons instead of a class.
13. Use metaphor instead of literal statement.
14. Do not confuse metaphor.
14 a. Do not mix metaphor with literal statement.
14 b. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject.
ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.
15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; i.e., for the
most part, at the beginning or the end of the sentence.
15 a. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end.
Exceptions.
15 b. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis.
16. The Subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be transferred
from the beginning of the sentence.
17. The Object is sometimes placed before the Verb for emphasis.
18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is the most
emphatic. Emphasis can sometimes be given by adding an epithet, or an
intensifying word.
19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they
are grammatically connected.
20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to
qualify.
21. "Only"; the strict rule is that "only" should be placed before the
word it affects.
22. When "not only" precedes "but also," see that each is followed by
the same part of speech.
23. "At least," "always," and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimes
produce ambiguity.
24. Nouns should be placed near the Nouns that they define.
25. Pronouns should follow the Nouns to which they refer, without the
intervention of any other Noun.
26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close
together as possible. Avoid parentheses. But see 55.
27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent or "if-clauses" must be
kept distinct from the consequent clauses.
28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept distinct from
those that are independent.
29. Where there are several infinitives, those that are dependent on
the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not.
30. The principle of Suspense.
30 a. It is a violation of the principle of suspense to introduce
unexpectedly at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphatic
clause beginning with (a) "not," (b) "which."
31. Suspense must not be excessive.
32. In a sentence with "if," "when," "though," &c., put the
"if-clause," antecedent, or protasis, first.
33. Suspense is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective, that
qualifies the Subject, before the Subject.
34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e.g. "either," "not only," "on the one
hand," &c., add clearness.
35. Repeat the Subject, where its omission would cause obscurity or
ambiguity.
36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction, especially
if a Verb and an Object also intervene.
37. Repeat Conjunctions, Auxiliary Verbs, and Pronominal Adjectives.
37 a. Repeat Verbs after the Conjunctions "than," "as," &c.
38. Repeat the Subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of
what has been said, if the sentence is so long that it is difficult to
keep the thread of meaning unbroken.
39. Clearness is increased, when the beginning of the sentence
prepares the way for the middle, and the middle for the end, the whole
forming a kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."
40. When the thought is expected to ascend, but descends, feebleness,
and sometimes confusion, is the result. The descent is called
"bathos."
40 a. A new construction should not be introduced unexpectedly.
41. Antithesis adds force and often clearness.
42. Epigram.
43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of
thought. Avoid heterogeneous sentences.
44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by
Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting
words at the beginning of the sentence.
45. The connection between two long sentences or paragraphs sometimes
requires a short intervening sentence showing the transition of
thought.
II. BREVITY.
46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement.
47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than particular
terms.
47 a. A phrase may sometimes be expressed by a word.
48. Participles may often be used as brief (though sometimes
ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs.
49. Participles, Adjectives, Participial Adjectives, and Nouns may be
used as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative.
50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of being
expressed at length.
51. Conjunctions may be omitted. Adverbs, e.g. "very," "so."
Exaggerated epithets, e.g. "incalculable," "unprecedented."
51 a. The imperative may be used for "if &c."
52. Apposition may be used, so as to convert two sentences into one.
53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the common
Subject of several Verbs; (2) the common Object of several Verbs or
Prepositions.
54. Tautology. Repeating what may be implied.
55. Parenthesis maybe used with advantage to brevity. See 26.
56. Brevity often clashes with clearness. Let clearness be the first
consideration.
CLEARNESS AND FORCE.
Numbers in brackets refer to the Rules.
WORDS.
*1. Use words in their proper sense.*
Write, not "His apparent guilt justified his friends in disowning
him," but "his evident guilt." "Conscious" and "aware," "unnatural"
and "supernatural," "transpire" and "occur," "circumstance" and
"event," "reverse" and "converse," "eliminate" and "elicit," are often
confused together.
This rule forbids the use of the same word in different senses. "It is
in my power to refuse your request, and since I have power to do
this, I may lawfully do it." Here the second "power" is used for
"authority."
This rule also forbids the slovenly use of "nice," "awfully,"
"delicious," "glorious," &c. See (2).
*2. Avoid exaggerations.*
"The boundless plains in the heart of the empire furnished
inexhaustible supplies of corn, that would have almost sufficed for
twice the population."
Here "inexhaustible" is inconsistent with what follows. The words
"unprecedented," "incalculable," "very," and "stupendous" are often
used in the same loose way.
*3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing."*
"Her Majesty here partook of lunch." Write "lunched."
"Partook of" implies sharing, and is incorrect as well as lengthy.
So, do not use "apex" for "top," "species" for "kind," "individual"
for "man," "assist" for "help," &c.
*4. Be careful how you use the following words: "not … and," "any,"
"only," "not … or," "that."*[5]
*And.* See below, "Or."
*Any.*—"I am not bound to receive any messenger that you send."
Does this mean every, or a single? Use "every" or "a single."
*Not.*—(1) "I do not intend to help you, because you are my enemy
&c." ought to mean (2), "I intend not to help you, and my reason for
not helping you is, because you are my enemy." But it is often wrongly
used to mean (3), "I intend to help you, not because you are my enemy
(but because you are poor, blind, &c.)." In the latter case, not
ought to be separated from intend. By distinctly marking the limits
to which the influence of not extends, the ambiguity may be removed.
*Only* is often used ambiguously for alone. "The rest help me to
revenge myself; you only advise me to wait." This ought to mean,
"you only advise, instead of helping;" but in similar sentences
"you only" is often used for "you alone." But see 21.
*Or.*—When "or" is preceded by a negative, as "I do not want butter
or honey," "or" ought not, strictly speaking, to be used like "and,"
nor like "nor." The strict use of "not … or" would be as follows:—
"You say you don't want both butter and honey—you want butter or
honey; I, on the contrary, do not want butter or honey—I want them
both."
Practically, however, this meaning is so rare, that "I don't want
butter or honey" is regularly used for "I want neither butter nor
honey." But where there is the slightest danger of ambiguity, it is
desirable to use nor.
The same ambiguity attends "not … and." "I do not see Thomas and
John" is commonly used for "I see neither Thomas nor John;" but it
might mean, "I do not see them both—I see only one of them."
*That.*—The different uses of "that" produce much ambiguity, e.g.
"I am so much surprised by this statement that I am desirous of
resigning, that I scarcely know what reply to make." Here it is
impossible to tell, till one has read past "resigning," whether the
first "that" depends upon "so" or "statement." Write: "The statement
that I am desirous of resigning surprises me so much that I scarcely
know &c."
*4 a. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e.g. "certain."*
"Certain" is often used for "some," as in "Independently of his
earnings, he has a certain property," where the meaning might be
"unfailing."
Under this head may be mentioned the double use of words, such as
"left" in the same form and sound, but different in meaning. Even
where there is no obscurity, the juxtaposition of the same word twice
used in two senses is inelegant, e.g. (Bain), "He turned to the
left and left the room."
I have known the following slovenly sentence misunderstood: "Our
object is that, with the aid of practice, we may sometime arrive at
the point where we think eloquence in its most praiseworthy form to
lie." "To lie" has been supposed to mean "to deceive."
*5. Be careful how you use "he," "it," "they," "these," &c.* (For
"which" see 8.) The ambiguity arising from the use of he applying to
different persons is well known.
"He told his friend that if he did not feel better in half an hour
he thought he had better return." See (6) for remedy.
Much ambiguity is also caused by excessive use of such phrases as in
this way, of this sort, &c.
"God, foreseeing the disorders of human nature, has given us certain
passions and affections which arise from, or whose objects are, these
disorders. Of this sort are fear, resentment, compassion."
Repeat the noun: "Among these passions and affections are fear &c."
Two distinct uses of it may be noted. It, when referring to
something that precedes, may be called "retrospective;" but when to
something that follows, "prospective." In "Avoid indiscriminate
charity: it is a crime," "it" is retrospective.[6] In "It is a
crime to give indiscriminately," "it" is prospective.
The prospective "it," if productive of ambiguity, can often be omitted
by using the infinitive as a subject: "To give indiscriminately is a
crime."
*6. Report a speech in the First, not the Third Person, where
necessary to avoid ambiguity.* Speeches in the third person afford a
particular, though very common case, of the general ambiguity
mentioned in (5). Instead of "He told his friend that if he did not
feel better &c.," write "He said to his friend, 'If, I (or you)
don't feel better &c.'"
*6 a. Sometimes, where the writer cannot know the exact words, or
where the exact words are unimportant, or lengthy and uninteresting,
the Third Person is preferable.* Thus, where Essex is asking Sir
Robert Cecil that Francis Bacon may be appointed Attorney-General, the
dialogue is (as it almost always is in Lord Macaulay's writings) in
the First Person, except where it becomes tedious and uninteresting
so as to require condensation, and then it drops into the Third
Person:
"Sir Robert had nothing to say but that he thought his own abilities
equal to the place which he hoped to obtain, and that his father's
long services deserved such a mark of gratitude from the Queen."
*6 b. Omission of "that" in a speech reported in the Third
Person.*—Even when a speech is reported in the third person, "that"
need not always be inserted before the dependent verb. Thus, instead
of "He said that he took it ill that his promises were not believed,"
we may write, "'He took it ill,' he said, 'that &c.'" This gives a
little more life, and sometimes more clearness also.
*7. When you use a Participle, as "walking," implying "when," "while,"
"though," "that," make it clear by the context what is implied.*
"Republics, in the first instance, are never desired for their own
sakes. I do not think they will finally be desired at all,
unaccompanied by courtly graces and good breeding."
Here there is a little doubt whether the meaning is "since they are,
or, if they are, unaccompanied."
*That or when.*—"Men walking (that walk, or when they walk) on
ice sometimes fall."
It is better to use "men walking" to mean "men when they walk." If
the relative is meant, use "men that walk," instead of the participle.
(1) "While he was } Walking on { (1) the road, } he fell."
(2) "Because he was } { (2) the ice, }
When the participle precedes the subject, it generally implies a
cause: "Seeing this, he retired." Otherwise it generally has its
proper participial meaning, e.g. "He retired, keeping his face
towards us." If there is any ambiguity, write "on seeing,"—"at the
same time, or while, keeping."
(1) "Though he was} {(1) he nevertheless stood
} { his ground."
(2) "Since he was } Struck with terror, {(2) he rapidly retreated."
(3) "If he is } {(3) he will soon retreat."
*8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who" and "which" where the
meaning is "and he, it, &c.," "for he, it, &c." In other cases use
"that," if euphony allows.*
"I heard this from the inspector, who (and he) heard it from the
guard that travelled with the train."
"Fetch me (all) the books that lie on the table, and also the
pamphlets, which (and these) you will find on the floor."
An adherence to this rule would remove much ambiguity. Thus: "There
was a public-house next door, which was a great nuisance," means
"and this (i.e. the fact of its being next door) was a great
nuisance;" whereas that would have meant "Next door was a
public-house that (i.e. the public-house) was a great nuisance."
*"Who," "which," &c. introduce a new fact about the antecedent,
whereas "that" introduces something without which the antecedent is
incomplete or undefined.* Thus, in the first example above,
"inspector" is complete in itself, and "who" introduces a new fact
about him; "guard" is incomplete, and requires "that travelled with
the train" to complete the meaning.
It is not, and cannot be, maintained that this rule, though observed
in Elizabethan English, is observed by our best modern authors.
(Probably a general impression that "that" cannot be used to refer to
persons has assisted "who" in supplanting "that" as a relative.) But
the convenience of the rule is so great that beginners in composition
may with advantage adhere to the rule. The following are some of the
cases where who and which are mostly used, contrary to the rule,
instead of that.
*Exceptions:*—
(a) When the antecedent is defined, e.g. by a possessive case,
modern English uses who instead of that. It is rare, though it
would be useful,[7] to say "His English friends that had not seen
him" for "the English friends, or those of his English friends, that
had not seen him."
(b) That sounds ill when separated from its verb and from its
antecedents, and emphasized by isolation: "There are many persons
that, though unscrupulous, are commonly good-tempered, and that,
if not strongly incited by self-interest, are ready for the most part
to think of the interest of their neighbours." Shakespeare frequently
uses who after that when the relative is repeated. See
"Shakespearian Grammar," par. 260.
(c) If the antecedent is qualified by that, the relative must not
be that. Besides other considerations, the repetition is
disagreeable. Addison ridicules such language as "That remark that
I made yesterday is not that that I said that I regretted that
I had made."
(d) That cannot be preceded by a preposition, and hence throws the
preposition to the end. "This is the rule that I adhere to." This
is perfectly good English, though sometimes unnecessarily avoided.
But, with some prepositions, the construction is harsh and
objectionable, e.g. "This is the mark that I jumped beyond,"
"Such were the prejudices that he rose above." The reason is that
some of these disyllabic prepositions are used as adverbs, and, when
separated from their nouns, give one the impression that they are used
as adverbs.
(e) After pronominal adjectives used for personal pronouns, modern
English prefers who. "There are many, others, several, those, who
can testify &c."
(f) After that used as a conjunction there is sometimes a dislike
to use that as a relative. See (c).
*9. Do not use redundant "and" before "which."[8]*
"I gave him a very interesting book for a present, and which cost me
five shillings."
In short sentences the absurdity is evident, but in long sentences it
is less evident, and very common.
"A petition was presented for rescinding that portion of the bye-laws
which permits application of public money to support sectarian
schools over which ratepayers have no control, this being a violation
of the principle of civil and religious liberty, and which the
memorialists believe would provoke a determined and conscientious
resistance."
Here which ought grammatically to refer to "portion" or "schools."
But it seems intended to refer to "violation." Omit "and," or repeat
"a violation" before "which," or turn the sentence otherwise.
*10. Equivalents for Relative.*
*(a) Participle.*—"Men thirsting (for 'men that thirst') for
revenge are not indifferent to plunder." The objection to the
participle is that here, as often, it creates a little ambiguity. The
above sentence may mean, "men, when they thirst," or "though they
thirst," as well as "men that thirst." Often however there is no
ambiguity: "I have documents proving this conclusively."
*(b) Infinitive.*—Instead of "He was the first that entered" you
can write "to enter;" for "He is not a man who will act
dishonestly," "to act." This equivalent cannot often be used.
*(c) Whereby, wherein, &c.,* can sometimes be used for "by which,"
"in which," so as to avoid a harsh repetition of "which." "The
means whereby this may be effected." But this use is somewhat
antiquated.
*(d) If.*—"The man that does not care for music is to be pitied"
can be written (though not so forcibly), "If a man does not care for
music, he is to be pitied." It is in long sentences that this
equivalent will be found most useful.
*(e) And this.*—"He did his best, which was all that could be
expected," can be written, "and this was all that, &c."
*(f) What.*—"Let me repeat that which[9] you ought to know, that
that which is worth doing is worth doing well." "Let me repeat,
what you ought to know, that what is worth doing is worth doing
well."
*(g) Omission of Relative.*—It is sometimes thought ungrammatical
to omit the relative, as in "The man (that) you speak of." On the
contrary, that when an object (not when a subject) may be omitted,
wherever the antecedent and the subject of the relative sentence are
brought into juxtaposition by the omission.
*10 a'. Repeat the Antecedent in some new form, where there is any
ambiguity.* This is particularly useful after a negative: "He said
that he would not even hear me, which I confess I had expected."
Here the meaning may be, "I had expected that he would," or "that he
would not, hear me." Write, "a refusal, or, a favour, that I
confess I had expected." See (38).
*11. Use particular for general terms.*—This is a most important
rule. Instead of "I have neither the necessaries of life nor the means
of procuring them," write (if you can with truth), "I have not a
crust of bread, nor a penny to buy one."
CAUTION.—There is a danger in this use. The meaning is vividly
expressed but sometimes may be exaggerated or imperfect. Crust of
bread may be an exaggeration; on the other hand, if the speaker is
destitute not only of bread, but also of shelter and clothing, then
crust of bread is an imperfect expression of the meaning.
In philosophy and science, where the language ought very often to be
inclusive and brief, general and not particular terms must be used.
*11 a. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used instead.* The
disadvantage of the use of Verbal Nouns is this, that, unless they are
immediately preceded by prepositions, they are sometimes liable to be
confounded with participles. The following is an instance of an
excessive use of Verbal Nouns:
"The pretended confession of the secretary was only collusion to lay
the jealousies of the king's favouring popery, which still hung upon
him, notwithstanding his writing on the Revelation, and affecting
to enter on all occasions into controversy, asserting in particular
that the Pope was Antichrist."
Write "notwithstanding that he wrote and affected &c."
*12. Use a particular Person instead of a class.*
"What is the splendour of the greatest monarch compared with the
beauty of a flower?" "What is the splendour of Solomon compared with
the beauty of a daisy?"
Under this head may come the forcible use of Noun for Adjective: "This
fortress is weakness itself."
An excess of this use is lengthy and pedantically bombastic, e.g.,
the following paraphrase for "in every British colony:"—"under Indian
palm-groves, amid Australian gum-trees, in the shadow of African
mimosas, and beneath Canadian pines."
*13. Use Metaphor instead of literal statement.*
"The ship ploughs the sea" is clearer than "the ship cleaves the
sea," and shorter than "the ship cleaves the sea as a plough
cleaves the land."
Of course there are some subjects for which Metaphor should not be
used. See (14 a) and (14 b).
*14. Do not confuse Metaphor.*
"In a moment the thunderbolt was upon them, deluging their country
with invaders."
The following is attributed to Sir Boyle Roche: "Mr. Speaker, I smell
a rat, I see him brewing in the air; but, mark me, I shall yet nip him
in the bud."
Some words, once metaphorical, have ceased to be so regarded. Hence
many good writers say "under these circumstances" instead of "in
these circumstances."
An excessive regard for disused metaphor savours of pedantry:
disregard is inelegant. Write, not, "unparalleled complications,"
but "unprecedented complications;" and "he threw light on
obscurities," instead of "he unravelled obscurities."
*14 a. Do not introduce literal statement immediately after Metaphor.*
"He was the father of Chemistry, and brother to the Earl of Cork."
"He was a very thunderbolt of war,
And was lieutenant to the Earl of Mar."
*14 b. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject.*
Thus, we may say "a poet soars," or even, though rarely, "a nation
soars to greatness," but you could not say "Consols soared to
94-1/2." Even commonplace subjects may be illustrated by metaphor: for
it is a metaphor, and quite unobjectionable, to say "Consols
mounted, or jumped to 94-1/2." But commonplace subjects must be
illustrated by metaphor that is commonplace.
ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.
*15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; i.e. for the
most part, at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.* This rule
occasionally supersedes the common rules about position. Thus, the
place for an adverb, as a rule, should be between the subject and
verb: "He quickly left the room;" but if quickly is to be
emphatic, it must come at the beginning or end, as in "I told him to
leave the room slowly, but he left quickly."
Adjectives, in clauses beginning with "if" and "though," often come at
the beginning for emphasis: "Insolent though he was, he was silenced
at last."
*15 a. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end of the
sentence.* It is a common fault to break this rule by placing a short
and unemphatic predicate at the end of a long sentence.
"To know some Latin, even if it be nothing but a few Latin roots, is
useful." Write, "It is useful, &c."
So "the evidence proves how kind to his inferiors he is."
Often, where an adjective or auxiliary verb comes at the end, the
addition of an emphatic adverb justifies the position, e.g. above,
"is very useful," "he has invariably been."
A short "chippy" ending, even though emphatic, is to be avoided. It is
abrupt and unrhythmical, e.g. "The soldier, transfixed with the
spear, writhed." We want a longer ending, "fell writhing to the
ground," or, "writhed in the agonies of death." A "chippy" ending is
common in bad construing from Virgil.
*Exceptions.*—Prepositions and pronouns attached to emphatic words
need not be moved from the end; e.g. "He does no harm that I hear
of." "Bear witness how I loved him."
*N.B. In all styles, especially in letter-writing, a final emphasis
must not be so frequent as to become obtrusive and monotonous.*
*15 b. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis.* "No one can doubt
that the prisoner, had he been really guilty, would have shown some
signs of remorse," is not so emphatic as "Who can doubt, Is it
possible to doubt, &c.?"
Contrast "No one ever names Wentworth without thinking of &c." with
"But Wentworth,—who ever names him without thinking of those harsh
dark features, ennobled by their expression into more than the majesty
of an antique Jupiter?"
*16. The subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be removed from
the beginning of the sentence.* The beginning of the sentence is an
emphatic position, though mostly not so emphatic as the end. Therefore
the principal subject of a sentence, being emphatic, and being wanted
early in the sentence to tell us what the sentence is about, comes as
a rule, at or near the beginning: "Thomas built this house."
Hence, since the beginning is the usual place for the subject, if we
want to emphasize "Thomas" unusually, we must remove "Thomas" from
the beginning: "This house was built by Thomas," or "It was Thomas
that built this house."
Thus, the emphasis on "conqueror" is not quite so strong in "A mere
conqueror ought not to obtain from us the reverence that is due to
the great benefactors of mankind," as in "We ought not to bestow the
reverence that is due to the great benefactors of mankind, upon a
mere conqueror." Considerable, but less emphasis and greater
smoothness (19) will be obtained by writing the sentence thus: "We
ought not to bestow upon a mere conqueror &c."
Where the same subject stands first in several consecutive sentences,
it rises in emphasis, and need not be removed from the beginning, even
though unusual emphasis be required:
"The captain was the life and soul of the expedition. He first
pointed out the possibility of advancing; he warned them of the
approaching scarcity of provisions; he showed how they might
replenish their exhausted stock &c."
*17. The object is sometimes placed before the verb for emphasis.*
This is most common in antithesis. "Jesus I know, and Paul I know;
but who are ye?" "Some he imprisoned, others he put to death."
Even where there is no antithesis the inversion is not uncommon:
"Military courage, the boast of the sottish German, of the frivolous
and prating Frenchman, of the romantic and arrogant Spaniard, he
neither possesses nor values."
This inversion sometimes creates ambiguity in poetry, e.g. "The son
the father slew," and must be sparingly used in prose.
Sometimes the position of a word may be considered appropriate by
some, and inappropriate by others, according to different
interpretations of the sentence. Take as an example, "Early in the
morning the nobles and gentlemen who attended on the king assembled in
the great hall of the castle; and here they began to talk of what a
dreadful storm it had been the night before. But Macbeth could
scarcely understand what they said, for he was thinking of something
worse." The last sentence has been amended by Professor Bain into
"What they said, Macbeth could scarcely understand." But there
appears to be an antithesis between the guiltless nobles who can think
about the weather, and the guilty Macbeth who cannot. Hence, "what
they said" ought not, and "Macbeth" ought, to be emphasized: and
therefore "Macbeth" ought to be retained at the beginning of the
sentence.
The same author alters, "The praise of judgment Virgil has justly
contested with him, but his invention remains yet unrivalled," into
"Virgil has justly contested with him the praise of judgment, but no
one has yet rivalled his invention"—an alteration which does not seem
to emphasize sufficiently the antithesis between what had been
'contested,' on the one hand, and what remained as yet 'unrivalled' on
the other.
More judiciously Professor Bain alters, "He that tells a lie is not
sensible how great a task he undertakes; for he must be forced to
invent twenty more to maintain one," into "for, to maintain one, he
must invent twenty more," putting the emphatic words in their emphatic
place, at the end.
*18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is the most
emphatic.* Thus, in "The state was made, under the pretence of serving
it, in reality the prize of their contention to each of these opposite
parties," it is unpleasantly doubtful whether the writer means (1)
state or (2) parties to be emphatic.
If (1), "As for the state, these two parties, under the pretence of
serving it, converted it into a prize for their contention." If (2),
write, "Though served in profession, the state was in reality
converted into a prize for their contention by these two parties."
In (1) parties is subordinated, in (2) state.
Sometimes the addition of some intensifying word serves to emphasize.
Thus, instead of "To effect this they used all devices," we can write
"To effect this they used every conceivable device." So, if we want
to emphasize fidelity in "The business will task your skill and
fidelity," we can write "Not only your skill but also your
fidelity." This, however, sometimes leads to exaggerations. See (2).
Sometimes antithesis gives emphasis, as in "You do not know this,
but you shall know it." Where antithesis cannot be used, the
emphasis must be expressed by turning the sentence, as "I will make
you know it," or by some addition, as "You shall hereafter know
it."
*19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they
are grammatically connected.* See Paragraphs 20 to 29. For exceptions
see 30.
*20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to
affect.* When unemphatic, adverbs come between the subject and the
verb, or, if the tense is compound, between the parts of the compound
tense: "He quickly left the room;" "He has quickly left the room;"
but, when emphatic, after the verb: "He left, or has left, the room
quickly."[10] When such a sentence as the latter is followed by a
present participle, there arises ambiguity. "I told him to go slowly,
but he left the room quickly, dropping the purse on the floor." Does
quickly here modify left or dropping? The remedy[11] is, to give
the adverb its unemphatic place, "He quickly left the room, dropping
&c.," or else to avoid the participle, thus: "He quickly dropped the
purse and left the room," or "He dropped the purse and quickly left
the room."
*21. "Only" requires careful use. The strict[12] rule is, that "only"
should be placed before the word affected by it.*
The following is ambiguous:
"The heavens are not open to the faithful only at intervals."
The best rule is to avoid placing "only" between two emphatic words,
and to avoid using "only" where "alone" can be used instead.
In strictness perhaps the three following sentences:
(1) He only beat three,
(2) He beat only three,
(3) He beat three only, ought to be explained, severally, thus:
(1) He did no more than beat, did not kill, three.
(2) He beat no more than three.
(3) He beat three, and that was all he did. (Here only modifies the
whole of the sentence and depreciates the action.)
But the best authors sometimes transpose the word. "He only lived"
ought to mean "he did not die or make any great sacrifice;" but "He
only lived but till he was a man" (Macbeth, v. 8. 40) means "He
lived only till he was a man." Compare also, "Who only hath
immortality."
Only at the beginning of a statement = but. "I don't like to
importune you, only I know you'll forgive me." Before an imperative
it diminishes the favour asked: "Only listen to me." This use of
only is mostly confined to letters.
Very often, only at the beginning of a sentence is used for alone:
"Only ten came," "Only Cæsar approved." Alone is less ambiguous.
The ambiguity of only is illustrated by such a sentence as, "Don't
hesitate to bring a few friends of yours to shoot on my estate at any
time. Only five (fifteen) came yesterday," which might mean, "I
don't mind a few; only don't bring so many as fifteen;" or else
"Don't hesitate to bring a few more; no more than five came
yesterday." In conversation, ambiguity is prevented by emphasis; but
in a letter, only thus used might cause unfortunate mistakes. Write
"Yesterday only five came," if you mean "no more than five."
*22. When "not only" precedes "but also," see that each is followed by
the same part of speech.*
"He not only gave me advice but also help" is wrong. Write "He
gave me, not only advice, but also help." On the other hand, "He
not only gave me a grammar, but also lent me a dictionary," is
right. Take an instance. "He spoke not only forcibly but also
tastefully (adverbs), and this too, not only before a small
audience, but also in (prepositions) a large public meeting, and his
speeches were not only successful, but also (adjective) worthy of
success."
*23. "At least," "always," and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimes
produce ambiguity.*
"I think you will find my Latin exercise, at all events, as good as
my cousin's." Does this mean (1) "my Latin exercise, though not
perhaps my other exercises;" or (2), "Though not very good, yet, at
all events, as good as my cousin's"? Write for (1), "My Latin
exercise, at all events, you will find &c." and for (2), "I think you
will find my Latin exercise as good as my cousin's, at all events."
The remedy is to avoid placing "at all events" between two emphatic
words.
As an example of the misplacing of an adverbial adjunct, take "From
abroad he received most favourable reports, but in the City he heard
that a panic had broken out on the Exchange, and that the funds were
fast falling." This ought to mean that the "hearing," and not (as is
intended) that the "breaking out of the panic," took place in the
City.
In practice, an adverb is often used to qualify a remote word, where
the latter is more emphatic than any nearer word. This is very
common when the Adverbial Adjunct is placed in an emphatic position at
the beginning of the sentence: "On this very spot our guide declared
that Claverhouse had fallen."
*24. Nouns should be placed near the nouns that they define.* In the
very common sentence "The death is announced of Mr. John Smith, an
author whose works &c.," the transposition is probably made from a
feeling that, if we write "The death of Mr. John Smith is announced,"
we shall be obliged to begin a new sentence, "He was an author whose
works &c." But the difficulty can be removed by writing "We regret to
announce, or, we are informed of, the death of Mr. John Smith, an
author, &c."
*25. Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the
intervention of another noun.* Avoid, "John Smith, the son of Thomas
Smith, who gave me this book," unless Thomas Smith is the
antecedent of who. Avoid also "John supplied Thomas with money: he
(John) was very well off."
When, however, one of two preceding nouns is decidedly superior to the
other in emphasis, the more emphatic may be presumed to be the noun
referred to by the pronoun, even though the noun of inferior emphasis
intervenes. Thus: "At this moment the colonel came up, and took the
place of the wounded general. He gave orders to halt." Here he
would naturally refer to colonel, though general intervenes. A
conjunction will often show that a pronoun refers to the subject of
the preceding sentence, and not to another intervening noun. "The
sentinel at once took aim at the approaching soldier, and fired. He
then retreated to give the alarm."
It is better to adhere, in most cases, to Rule 25, which may be called
(Bain) the Rule of Proximity. The Rule of Emphasis, of which an
instance was given in the last paragraph, is sometimes misleading. A
distinction might be drawn by punctuating thus:
"David the father of Solomon, who slew Goliath." "David, the father of
Solomon who built the Temple." But the propriety of omitting a comma
in each case is questionable, and it is better to write so as not to
be at the mercy of commas.
*26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close
together as possible.* (But see 55.) The introduction of parentheses
violating this rule often produced serious ambiguity. Thus, in the
following: "The result of these observations appears to be in
opposition to the view now generally received in this country, that
in muscular effort the substance of the muscle itself undergoes
disintegration." Here it is difficult to tell whether the theory of
"disintegration" is (1) "the result," or, as the absence of a comma
after "be" would indicate, (2) "in opposition to the result of these
observations." If (1) is intended, add "and to prove" after "country;"
if (2), insert "which is" after "country."
There is an excessive complication in the following:—"It cannot, at
all events, if the consideration demanded by a subject of such
importance from any one professing to be a philosopher, be given, be
denied that &c."
Where a speaker feels that his hearers have forgotten the connection
of the beginning of the sentence, he should repeat what he has said;
e.g. after the long parenthesis in the last sentence he should
recommence, "it cannot, I say, be denied." In writing, however, this
licence must be sparingly used.
A short parenthesis, or modifying clause, will not interfere with
clearness, especially if antithesis he used, so as to show the
connection between the different parts of the sentence, e.g. "A
modern newspaper statement, though probably true, would be laughed
at if quoted in a book as testimony; but the letter of a court gossip
is thought good historical evidence if written some centuries ago."
Here, to place "though probably true" at the beginning of the sentence
would not add clearness, and would impair the emphasis of the contrast
between "a modern newspaper statement" and "the letter of a court
gossip."
*27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent clauses must be kept
distinct from the consequent clauses.*—There is ambiguity in "The
lesson intended to be taught by these manoeuvres will be lost, if the
plan of operations is laid down too definitely beforehand, and the
affair degenerates into a mere review." Begin, in any case, with the
antecedent, "If the plan," &c. Next write, according to the meaning:
(1) "If the plan is laid down, and the affair degenerates &c., then
the lesson will be lost;" or (2) " … then the lesson … will be
lost, and the affair degenerates into a mere review."
*28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept distinct from
those that are independent.*
Take as an example:
(1) "He replied that he wished to help them, and intended to make
preparations accordingly."
This ought not to be used (though it sometimes is, for shortness) to
mean:
(2) "He replied …, and he intended."
In (1), "intended," having no subject, must be supposed to be
connected with the nearest preceding verb, in the same mood and tense,
that has a subject, i.e. "wished." It follows that (1) is a
condensation of:
(3) "He replied that he wished …, and that he intended."
(2), though theoretically free from ambiguity, is practically
ambiguous, owing to a loose habit of repeating the subject
unnecessarily. It would be better to insert a conjunctional word or a
full stop between the two statements. Thus:
(4) "He replied that he wished to help them, and indeed he
intended," &c., or "He replied, &c. He intended, &c."
Where there is any danger of ambiguity, use (3) or (4) in preference
to (1) or (2).
*29. When there are several infinitives, those that are dependent on
the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not.*
"He said that he wished to take his friend with him to visit the
capital and to study medicine." Here it is doubtful whether the
meaning is—
"He said that he wished to take his friend with him,
(1) and also to visit the capital and study medicine," or
(2) "that his friend might visit the capital and might also study
medicine," or
(3) "on a visit to the capital, and that he also wished to study
medicine."
From the three different versions it will be perceived that this
ambiguity must be met (a) by using "that" for "to," which allows us
to repeat an auxiliary verb [e.g. "might" in (2)], and (b) by
inserting conjunctions. As to insertions of conjunctions, see (37).
"In order to," and "for the purpose of," can be used to distinguish
(wherever there is any ambiguity) between an infinitive that
expresses a purpose, and an infinitive that does not, e.g. "He
told his servant to call upon his friend, to (in order to) give him
information about the trains, and not to leave him till he started."
*30. The principle of suspense.* Write your sentence in such a way
that, until he has come to the full stop, the reader may feel the
sentence to be incomplete. In other words, keep your reader in
suspense. Suspense is caused (1) by placing the "if-clause" first,
and not last, in a conditional sentence; (2) by placing participles
before the words they qualify; (3) by using suspensive conjunctions,
e.g. not only, either, partly, on the one hand, in the
first place, &c.
The following is an example of an unsuspended sentence. The sense
draggles, and it is difficult to keep up one's attention.
"Mr. Pym was looked upon as the man of greatest experience in
parliaments, | where he had served very long, | and was always a man
of business, | being an officer in the Exchequer, | and of a good
reputation generally, | though known to be inclined to the Puritan
party; yet not of those furious resolutions (Mod. Eng. so furiously
resolved) against the Church as the other leading men were, | and
wholly devoted to the Earl of Bedford,—who had nothing of that
spirit."
The foregoing sentence might have ended at any one of the eight points
marked above. When suspended it becomes:—
"Mr. Pym, owing to his long service in Parliament in the Exchequer,
was esteemed above all others for his Parliamentary experience and for
his knowledge of business. He had also a good reputation generally;
for, though openly favouring the Puritan party, he was closely devoted
to the Earl of Bedford, and, like the Earl, had none of the fanatical
spirit manifested against the Church by the other leading men."
*30 a. It is a violation of the principle of Suspense to introduce
unexpectedly, at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphatic
clause beginning with (a) " … not" or (b) " … which."*
(a) "This reform has already been highly beneficial to all classes
of our countrymen, and will, I am persuaded, encourage among us
industry, self-dependence, and frugality, and not, as some say,
wastefulness."
Write "not, as some say, wastefulness, but industry, self-dependence,
and frugality."
(b) "After a long and tedious journey, the last part of which was a
little dangerous owing to the state of the roads, we arrived safely at
York, which is a fine old town."
*Exception.*—When the short final clause is intended to be
unexpectedly unemphatic, it comes in appropriately, with something of
the sting of an epigram. See (42). Thus:
"The old miser said that he should have been delighted to give the
poor fellow a shilling, but most unfortunately he had left his purse
at home—a habit of his."
Suspense naturally throws increased emphasis on the words for which we
are waiting, i.e. on the end of the sentence. It has been pointed
out above that *a monotony of final emphasis is objectionable,
especially in letter writing and conversation*.
*31. Suspense must not be excessive.* Excess of suspense is a common
fault in boys translating from Latin. "Themistocles, having secured
the safety of Greece, the Persian fleet being now destroyed, when he
had unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the Greeks to break down the
bridge across the Hellespont, hearing that Xerxes was in full flight,
and thinking that it might be profitable to secure the friendship of
the king, wrote as follows to him." The more English idiom is: "When
Themistocles had secured the safety of Greece by the destruction of
the Persian fleet, he made an unsuccessful attempt to persuade the
Greeks to break down the bridge across the Hellespont. Soon
afterwards, hearing &c."
A long suspense that would be intolerable in prose is tolerable in the
introduction to a poem. See the long interval at the beginning of
Paradise Lost between "Of man's first disobedience" and "Sing,
heavenly Muse." Compare also the beginning of Paradise Lost, Book
II.:
"High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormuz and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold—
Satan exalted sat."
with the opening of Keats' Hyperion:
"Deep in the shady sadness of a vale,
Far sunken from the healthy breath of morn,
Far from the fiery noon and eve's one star—
Sat grey-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone."
*32. In a long conditional sentence put the "if-clause," antecedent,
or protasis, first.*
Everyone will see the flatness of "Revenge thy father's most unnatural
murder, if thou didst ever love him," as compared with the suspense
that forces an expression of agony from Hamlet in—
"Ghost. If thou didst ever thy dear father love—
Hamlet. O, God!
Ghost. Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder."
The effect is sometimes almost ludicrous when the consequent is long
and complicated, and when it precedes the antecedent or "if-clause."
"I should be delighted to introduce you to my friends, and to show you
the objects of interest in our city, and the beautiful scenery in the
neighbourhood, if you were here." Where the "if-clause" comes last, it
ought to be very emphatic: "if you were only here."
The introduction of a clause with "if" or "though" in the middle of a
sentence may often cause ambiguity, especially when a great part of
the sentence depends on "that:" "His enemies answered that, for the
sake of preserving the public peace, they would keep quiet for the
present, though he declared that cowardice was the motive of the
delay, and that for this reason they would put off the trial to a more
convenient season." See (27).
*33. Suspense[13] is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective that
qualifies the Subject, before the Subject.*
"Deserted by his friends, he was forced to have recourse to those
that had been his enemies." Here, if we write, "He, deserted by his
friends, was forced &c.," he is unduly emphasized; and if we write,
"He was forced to have recourse to his enemies, having been deserted
by his friends," the effect is very flat.
Of course we might sometimes write "He was deserted and forced &c."
But this cannot be done where the "desertion" is to be not stated but
implied.
Often, when a participle qualifying the subject is introduced late in
the sentence, it causes positive ambiguity: "With this small force the
general determined to attack the foe, flushed with recent victory
and rendered negligent by success."
An excessive use of the suspensive participle is French and
objectionable: e.g. "Careless by nature, and too much engaged
with business to think of the morrow, spoiled by a long-established
liberty and a fabulous prosperity, having for many generations
forgotten the scourge of war, we allow ourselves to drift on without
taking heed of the signs of the times." The remedy is to convert the
participle into a verb depending on a conjunction: "Because we are by
nature careless, &c.;" or to convert the participle into a verb
co-ordinate with the principal verb, e.g. "We are by nature
careless, &c., and therefore we allow ourselves, &c."
*34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e.g. "either," "not only," "on the one
hand," add clearness.*—Take the following sentence:—"You must take
this extremely perilous course, in which success is uncertain, and
failure disgraceful, as well as ruinous, or else the liberty of your
country is endangered." Here, the meaning is liable to be
misunderstood, till the reader has gone half through the sentence.
Write "Either you must," &c., and the reader is, from the first,
prepared for an alternative. Other suspensive conjunctions or phrases
are partly, for our part; in the first place; it is true;
doubtless; of course; though; on the one hand.
*35. Repeat the Subject when the omission would cause ambiguity or
obscurity.*—The omission is particularly likely to cause obscurity
after a Relative standing as Subject:—
"He professes to be helping the nation, which in reality is suffering
from his flattery, and (he? or it?) will not permit anyone else to
give it advice."
The Relative should be repeated when it is the Subject of several
Verbs. "All the pleasing illusions which made power gentle and
obedience liberal, which harmonized the different shades of life,
and which, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the
sentiments that beautify and soften private society, are to be
dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason."
*36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction, especially
if a Verb and an Object also intervene.*
"He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that helped all his
companions when he was poor and uninfluential, and (to) John Smith
in particular." Here, omit to, and the meaning may be "that helped
all his companions, and John Smith in particular." The intervention of
the verb and object, "helped" and "companions," causes this ambiguity.
*37. When there are several Verbs at some distance from a Conjunction
on which they depend, repeat the Conjunction.*[14]
"When we look back upon the havoc that two hundred years have made in
the ranks of our national authors—and, above all, (when) we refer
their rapid disappearance to the quick succession of new
competitors—we cannot help being dismayed at the prospect that lies
before the writers of the present day."
Here omit "when," and we at once substitute a parenthetical statement
for what is really a subordinate clause.
In reporting a speech or opinion, "that" must be continually repeated,
to avoid the danger of confusing what the writer says with what others
say.
"We might say that the Cæsars did not persecute the Christians;
(that) they only punished men who were charged, rightly or wrongly,
with burning Rome, and committing the foulest abominations in secret
assemblies; and (that) the refusal to throw frankincense on the
altar of Jupiter was not the crime, but only evidence of the crime."
But see (6 b).
*37 a. Repeat Verbs after the conjunctions "than," "as," &c.*
"I think he likes me better than you;" i.e. either "than you like
me," or "he likes you."
"Cardinal Richelieu hated Buckingham as sincerely as did the
Spaniard Olivares." Omit "did," and you cause ambiguity.
*38. If the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the
thread of meaning unbroken, repeat the subject, or some other emphatic
word, or a summary of what has been said.*
"Gold and cotton, banks and railways, crowded ports, and populous
cities—these are not the elements that constitute a great nation."
This repetition (though useful and, when used in moderation, not
unpleasant) is more common with speakers than with writers, and with
slovenly speakers than with good speakers.
"The country is in such a condition, that if we delay longer some fair
measure of reform, sufficient at least to satisfy the more moderate,
and much more, if we refuse all reform whatsoever—I say, if we adopt
so unwise a policy, the country is in such a condition that we may
precipitate a revolution."
Where the relative is either implied (in a participle) or repeated,
the antecedent must often be repeated also. In the following sentence
we have the Subject repeated not only in the final summary, but also
as the antecedent:—
"But if there were, in any part of the world, a national church
regarded as heretical by four-fifths of the nation committed to its
care; a church established and maintained by the sword; a church
producing twice as many riots as conversions; a church which, though
possessing great wealth and power, and though long backed by
persecuting laws, had, in the course of many generations, been found
unable to propagate its doctrines, and barely able to maintain its
ground; a church so odious that fraud and violence, when used
against its clear rights of property, were generally regarded as fair
play; a church whose ministers were preaching to desolate walls, and
with difficulty obtaining their lawful subsistence by the help of
bayonets,—such a church, on our principles, could not, we must own,
be defended."
*39. It is a help to clearness, when the first part of the sentence
prepares the way for the middle and the middle for the end, in a kind
of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."*
In the following there are two climaxes, each of which has three
terms:—
"To gossip(a) is a fault(b); to libel(a'), a crime(b'); to
slander(a''), a sin(b'')."
In the following, there are several climaxes, and note how they
contribute to the clearness of a long sentence:—
"Man, working, has contrived(a) the Atlantic Cable, but I declare
that it astonishes(b) me far more to think that for his mere
amusement(c), that to entertain a mere idle hour(c'), he has
created(a') 'Othello' and 'Lear,' and I am more than astonished, I
am awe-struck(b'), at that inexplicable elasticity of his nature
which enables him, instead of turning away(d) from calamity and
grief(e), or instead of merely defying(d') them, actually to make
them the material of his amusement(d''), and to draw from the
wildest agonies of the human spirit(e') a pleasure which is not
only not cruel(f), but is in the highest degree pure and
ennobling(f')."
The neglect of climax produces an abruptness that interferes with the
even flow of thought. Thus, if Pope, in his ironical address to
mankind, had written—
"Go, wondrous creature, mount where science guides;
Go, measure earth, weigh air, and state the tides;
Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule"—
the ascent would have been too rapid. The transition from earth to
heaven, and from investigating to governing, is prepared by the
intervening climax—
"Instruct the planets in what orbs to run;
Correct old Time, and regulate the Sun;
Go, soar with Plato to th' empyreal sphere,
To the first good, first perfect, and first fair."
*40. When the thought is expected to ascend and yet descends,
feebleness and sometimes confusion is the result. The descent is
called "bathos."*
"What pen can describe the tears, the lamentations, the agonies, the
animated remonstrances of the unfortunate prisoners?"
"She was a woman of many accomplishments and virtues, graceful in her
movements, winning in her address, a kind friend, a faithful and
loving wife, a most affectionate mother, and she played beautifully
on the pianoforte."
INTENTIONAL BATHOS has a humorous incongruity and abruptness that is
sometimes forcible. For example, after the climax ending with the
line—
"Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule,"
Pope adds—
"Then drop into thyself, and be a fool."
*40 a. A new construction should not be introduced without cause.*—A
sudden and apparently unnecessary change of construction causes
awkwardness and roughness at least, and sometimes breaks the flow of
the sentence so seriously as to cause perplexity. Thus, write
"virtuous and accomplished," or "of many virtues and accomplishments,"
not "of many virtues and accomplished;" "riding or walking" or "on
foot or horseback," not "on foot or riding." In the same way, do not
put adjectives and participles, active and passive forms of verbs, in
too close juxtaposition. Avoid such sentences as the following:—
"He had good reason to believe that the delay was not an accident
(accidental) but premeditated, and for supposing (to suppose, or
else, for believing, above) that the fort, though strong both by art
and naturally (nature), would be forced by the treachery of the
governor and the indolent (indolence of the) general to capitulate
within a week."
"They accused him of being bribed (receiving bribes from) by the
king and unwilling (neglecting) to take the city."
*41. Antithesis adds force, and often clearness.*—The meaning of
liberal in the following sentence is ascertained by the
antithesis:—
"All the pleasing illusions which made power(a) gentle(b) and
obedience(a') liberal(b') … are now to be destroyed."
There is a kind of proportion. As gentleness is to power, so
liberality (in the sense here used) is to obedience. Now
gentleness is the check on the excess of power; therefore liberal
here applies to that which checks the excess of obedience, i.e.
checks servility. Hence liberal here means "free."
The contrast also adds force. "They aimed at the rule(a), not at the
destruction(a'), of their country. They were men of great civil(b)
and great military(b') talents, and, if the terror(c), the
ornament(c') of their age."
Excessive antithesis is unnatural and wearisome:—
"Who can persuade where treason(a) is above reason(a'), and
might(b) ruleth right(b'), and it is had for lawful(c)
whatsoever is lustful(c'), and commotioners(d) are better than
commissioners(d'), and common woe(e) is named common
wealth(e')?"
*42. Epigram.*—It has been seen that the neglect of climax results in
lameness. Sometimes the suddenness of the descent produces amusement:
and when the descent is intentional and very sudden, the effect is
striking as well as amusing. Thus:—
(1) "You are not only not vicious, you are virtuous," is a climax.
(2) "You are not vicious, you are vice," is not climax, nor is it
bathos: it is epigram.[15]
Epigram may be defined as a "short sentence expressing truth under an
amusing appearance of incongruity." It is often antithetical.
"The Russian grandees came to { and diamonds," climax.
court dropping pearls { and vermin," epigram.
"These two nations were divided { and the bitter remembrance
by mutual fear { of recent losses," climax.
{ and mountains," epigram.
There is a sort of implied antithesis in:—
"He is full of information—(but flat also) like yesterday's Times."
"Verbosity is cured (not by a small, but) by a large vocabulary."
The name of epigram may sometimes be given to a mere antithesis;
e.g. "An educated man should know something of everything, and
everything of something."
*43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of
thought.*
"This great and good man died on the 17th of September, 1683, leaving
behind him the memory of many noble actions, and a numerous family, of
whom three were sons; one of them, George, the eldest, heir to his
father's virtues, as well as to his principal estates in Cumberland,
where most of his father's property was situate, and shortly
afterwards elected member for the county, which had for several
generations returned this family to serve in Parliament." Here we have
(1) the "great and good man," (2) "George," (3) "the county,"
disputing which is to be considered the principal subject. Two, if not
three sentences should have been made, instead of one. Carefully avoid
a long sentence like this, treating of many different subjects on one
level. It is called heterogeneous.
*44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by
Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting
words at the beginning of each sentence.*—Leave out the conjunctions
and other connecting words, and it will be seen that the following
sentences lose much of their meaning:—
"Pitt was in the army for a few months in time of peace. His
biographer (accordingly) insists on our confessing, that, if the
young cornet had remained in the service, he would have been one of
the ablest commanders that ever lived. (But) this is not all. Pitt
(, it seems,) was not merely a great poet in esse and a great
general in posse, but a finished example of moral excellence….
(The truth is, that) there scarcely ever lived a person who had so
little claim to this sort of praise as Pitt. He was (undoubtedly) a
great man. (But) his was not a complete and well-proportioned
greatness. The public life of Hampden or of Somers resembles a regular
drama which can be criticised as a whole, and every scene of which is
to be viewed in connection with the main action. The public life of
Pitt (, on the other hand,) is," &c.
The following are some of the most common connecting adverbs, or
connecting phrases: (1) expressing consequence, similarity,
repetition, or resumption of a subject—accordingly, therefore,
then, naturally, so that, thus, in this way, again, once
more, to resume, to continue, to sum up, in fact, upon
this; (2) expressing opposition—nevertheless, in spite of this,
yet, still, however, but, on the contrary, on the other
hand; (3) expressing suspension—undoubtedly … but; indeed …
yet; on the one hand … on the other; partly … partly; some
… others.
Avoid a style like that of Bishop Burnet, which strings together a
number of sentences with "and" or "so," or with no conjunction at all:
"Blake with the fleet happened to be at Malaga, before he made war
upon Spain; and some of his seamen went ashore, and met the Host
carried about; and not only paid no respect to it, but laughed at
those who did." Write "When Blake &c."
*45. The connection between two long sentences sometimes requires a
short intervening sentence, showing the transition of thought.*
"Without force or opposition, it (chivalry) subdued the fierceness of
pride and power; it obliged sovereigns to submit to the soft
collar[16] of social esteem, compelled stern authority to submit to
elegance, and gave a dominating vanquisher of laws to be subdued by
manners. But now (all is to be changed:) all the pleasing illusions
which made power gentle and obedience liberal, which harmonized the
different shades of life, and which, by a bland assimilation,
incorporated into politics the sentiments that beautify and soften
private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of
light and reason." If the words italicized were omitted, the
transition would be too abrupt: the conjunction but alone would be
insufficient.
FOOTNOTES:
[5] For, at the beginning of a sentence, sometimes causes temporary
doubt, while the reader is finding out whether it is used as a
conjunction or preposition.
[6] It should refer (1) either to the Noun immediately preceding, or
(2) to some Noun superior to all intervening Nouns in emphasis. See
(25).
[7] So useful that, on mature consideration, I am disposed to adopt
"that" here and in several of the following exceptional cases.
[8] Of course "and which" may be used where "which" precedes.
[9] "That which," where that is an object, e.g. "then (set
forth) that which is worse," St. John ii. 10, is rare in modern
English.
[10] Sometimes the emphatic Adverb comes at the beginning, and causes
the transposition of an Auxiliary Verb, "Gladly do I consent."
[11] Of course punctuation will remove the ambiguity; but it is better
to express oneself clearly, as far as possible, independently of
punctuation.
[12] Professor Bain.
[13] See (30).
[14] The repetition of Auxiliary Verbs and Pronominal Adjectives is
also conducive to clearness.
[15] Professor Bain says: "In the epigram the mind is roused by a
conflict or contradiction between the form of the language and the
meaning really conveyed."
[16] This metaphor is not recommended for imitation.
* * * * *
BREVITY.
*46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement.* See (13).
"The cares and responsibilities of a sovereign often disturb his
sleep," is not so brief as "Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown,"
where the effect of care on the mind is assimilated to the effect of a
heavy crown pressing on the head.
*47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than particular
terms.* Thus: "He devours literature, no matter of what kind," is
shorter than, "Novels or sermons, poems or histories, no matter what,
he devours them all."
*47 a. A phrase may be expressed by a word.*
"These impressions can never be forgotten, i.e. are indelible."
"The style of this book is of such a nature that it cannot be
understood, i.e. unintelligible."
The words "of such a nature that" are often unnecessarily inserted.
See the extract from Sir Archibald Alison.
*48. Participles can often be used as brief (though sometimes
ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs.*
"Hearing (when he heard) this, he advanced." See (7) for more
instances. So "phrases containing conjunctions" means "phrases that
contain conjunctions." "This done, (for, when this was done) he
retired."
Sometimes the participle "being" is omitted. "France at our doors, he
sees no danger nigh," for "France being" or "though France is."
*49. Participles and participial adjectives may be used like
Adjectives, as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative.*
"The never-ceasing wind," "the clamouring ocean," "the drenching
rain," are instances. The licence of inventing participial adjectives
by adding -ing to a noun, is almost restricted to poetry. You could
not write "the crannying wind" in prose.
*50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of being
expressed at length.* Thus, instead of "The spirit of Christianity was
humanizing, and therefore &c.," or "Christianity, since it was (or
being) of a humanizing spirit, discouraged &c.," we can write more
briefly and effectively, "Gladiatorial shows were first discouraged,
and finally put down, by the humanizing spirit of Christianity." So
instead of "The nature of youth is thoughtless and sanguine, and
therefore &c.," we can write, "The danger of the voyage was
depreciated and the beauty of the island exaggerated by the
thoughtless nature of youth."
Sometimes a mere name or epithet implies a statement. "It was in vain
that he offered the Swiss terms: war was deliberately preferred by the
hardy mountaineers," i.e. "by the Swiss, because they were
mountaineers and hardy." "The deed was applauded by all honest men,
but the Government affected to treat it as murder, and set a price
upon the head of (him whom they called) the assassin." "The conqueror
of Austerlitz might be expected to hold different language from the
prisoner of St. Helena," i.e. "Napoleon when elated by the victory
of Austerlitz," and "Napoleon when depressed by his imprisonment at
St. Helena."
CAUTION.—Different names must not be used for the same person unless
each of them derives an appropriateness from its context. Thus, if we
are writing about Charles II., it would be in very bad taste to avoid
repeating "he" by using such periphrases as the following: "The third
of the Stewarts hated business," "the Merry Monarch died in the
fifty-fourth year of his age," &c.
*51. Conjunctions may be omitted.* The omission gives a certain
forcible abruptness, e.g. "You say this: I (on the other hand) deny
it."
When sentences are short, as in Macaulay's writings, conjunctions may
be advantageously omitted.
Where a contrast is intended, the conjunction but usually prepares
the way for the second of the two contrasted terms: "He is good but
dull." Where and is used instead of but, the incongruity savours
of epigram: "He always talks truthfully and prosily." "He is always
amusing and false."
*51 a. The Imperative Mood may be used for "if."*
"Strip (for, if you strip) Virtue of the awful authority she
derives from the general reverence of mankind, and you rob her of half
her majesty."
*52. Apposition may be used so as to convert two sentences into one.*
"We called at the house of a person to whom we had letters of
introduction, a musician, and, what is more, a good friend to all
young students of music." This is as clear as, and briefer than, "He
was a musician, &c."
*53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the common
subject of several verbs, (2) the common object of several verbs or
prepositions.*
(1) "He resided here for many years, and, after he had won the esteem
of all the citizens, (he) died," &c. So, (2) "He came to, and was
induced to reside in, this city," is shorter than "He came to this
city, and was induced to reside in it."
Such condensation often causes obscurity, and, even where there is no
obscurity, there is a certain harshness in pausing on light,
unemphatic words, such as to, in, &c., as in the first example.
*54. Tautology.*—The fault of repeating the same word several times
unnecessarily is called tautology, e.g.:
"This is a painful circumstance; it is a circumstance that I much
regret, and he also will much regret the circumstance." But the
fault is not to be avoided by using different words to mean the same
thing, as, "This is a painful event; it is a circumstance that I
much regret, and he also will greatly lament the occurrence."
The true remedy is to arrange the words in such a manner that there
may be no unnecessary repetition, thus: "This is a painful
circumstance, a circumstance that causes me, and will cause him, deep
regret."
The repetition of the same meaning in slightly different words is a
worse fault than the repetition of the same word. See, for examples,
the extract from Sir Archibald Alison, at the end of the book. Thus
"A burning thirst for conquests is a characteristic of this nation.
It is an ardent passion that &c." Other instances are—"The
universal opinion of all men;" "His judgment is so infallible
that it is never deceived," &c.
*55. Parenthesis may be used with advantage to brevity.*
"We are all (and who would not be?) offended at the treatment we have
received," is shorter and more forcible than the sentence would have
been if the parenthesis had been appended in a separate sentence:
"Who, indeed, would not be offended?"
Extreme care must, however, be taken that a parenthesis may not
obscure the meaning of a long sentence.
*56. Caution: let clearness be the first consideration.* It is best,
at all events for beginners, not to aim so much at being brief, or
forcible, as at being perfectly clear. Horace says, "While I take
pains to be brief, I fall into obscurity," and it may easily be seen
that several of the rules for brevity interfere with the rules for
clearness.
Forcible style springs from (1) vividness and (2) exactness of
thought, and from a corresponding (1) vividness and (2) exactness in
the use of words.
(1) When you are describing anything, endeavour to see it and
describe it as you see it. If you are writing about a man who was
killed, see the man before you, and ask, was he executed, cut
down, run through the body, butchered, shot, or hanged? If
you are writing about the capture of a city, was the city stormed,
surprised, surrendered, starved out, or demolished before
surrender? Was an army repelled, defeated, routed, crushed,
or annihilated?
(2) Exactness in the use of words requires an exact knowledge of their
meanings and differences. This is a study by itself, and cannot be
discussed here.[17]
FOOTNOTES:
[17] See English Lessons for English People, pp. 1-53.
EXERCISES
For an explanation of the manner in which these Exercises are
intended to be used, see the Preface.
A number in brackets by itself, or followed by a letter, e.g. (43),
(40 a), refers to the Rules.
Letters by themselves in brackets, e.g. (b), refer to the
explanations or hints appended to each sentence.
N.B..—(10 a) refers to the first section of Rule (10); (10 a') to
the Rule following Rule (10).
1. "Pleasure and excitement had more attractions for him than (a)
(36) (37 a) his friend, and the two companions became estranged
(15 a) gradually."
(a) Write (1) "than for his friend," or (2) "than had his
friend," "had more attractions than his friend."
2. "(a) He soon grew tired of solitude even in that beautiful
scenery, (36) the pleasures of the retirement (8) which he had once
pined for, and (36) leisure which he could use to no good purpose,
(a) (30) being (15) restless by nature."
(a) This sentence naturally stops at "purpose." Also "being
restless" seems (wrongly) to give the reason why "leisure" could
not be employed. Begin "Restless by nature…."
3. "The opponents of the Government are naturally, and not (a) (40
a) without justification, elated at the failure of the bold
attempt to return two supporters of the Government at the recent
election, (b) (10 a') which is certainly to be regretted."
(a) "unjustifiably." (b) Write, for "which," either (1) "an
attempt that &c.," or (2) "a failure that &c."
4. "Carelessness in the Admiralty departments has co-operated with
Nature to weaken the moral power of a Government that particularly
needs to be thought efficient in (a) (5) this respect, (b)
(29) to counterbalance a general distrust of its excessive desire
(c) (47 a) to please everybody in Foreign Affairs."
(a) Write "the Navy." (b) Instead of "to" write "in order
to," so as to distinguish the different infinitives, (c)
"obsequiousness."
5. "(a) He was sometimes supported by Austria, who, oddly enough,
appears under Count Beust to have been more friendly to Italy than
(37 a) France, (30) in this line of action."
(a) Begin with "In this line of action." Why? (b) Write "than
was France" or "than France was."
6. "There was something so startling in (a) (5) this assertion,
(a) (4) that the discoveries of previous investigators were to be
(b) (47 a) treated as though they had never been made, and (4)
that one who had not yet (47 a) attained the age of manhood had
superseded the grey-headed philosophers (8) who had for centuries
patiently sought after the truth, (4) that (a) (5) it naturally
provoked derision."
(a) "This," "that," and "it," cause a little perplexity. Write
"The startling assertion that the discoveries…." (b)
"ignored." (c) "a mere youth," "a mere stripling."
7. "One of the recommendations (on which very (a) (26) (47, a)
much depended) of the Commission was that a council in each province
should establish smaller councils, each to have the oversight of a
small district, and (b) (37) report to a central council on the
state of Education in (c) (5) it."
(a) Write "cardinal recommendations." Derive "cardinal." (b)
Write, either (1) "and should report," or (2) "and to report."
(c) Write "in its province," or "district."
8. "At this (a) (1) period an (b) (11) event (c) (1)
transpired that destroyed the last hopes of peace. The king fell
from his horse and died two hours after the fall (d) (30), which
was occasioned by his horse's stumbling on a mole-hill, while he was
on his return from reviewing his soldiers."
(a) What is a "period"? (b) Express the particular kind of
event ("accident"). (c) What is the meaning of "transpired"?
(d) Transpose thus: "While the king was on his return … his
horse …; the king fell and &c." The cause should precede the
effect.
9. "He determined (c) on selling all his estates, and, as soon as
this was done (40 a), to (c) quit the country, (a) (33)
believing that his honour demanded this sacrifice and (40) (40 a)
in (b) the hope of satisfying his creditors."
(a) Begin with "Believing that &c." (b) "hoping thereby to
satisfy &c." (c) "to sell" or "on quitting.".
10. "He read patiently on, Leading Articles, Foreign Correspondence,
Money Article and all; (a) (43) during which his father fell asleep,
and he (b) went in search of his sister."
Point out the absurdity of "during which" applied to the last
part of the sentence. (a) "Meanwhile." (b) Insert "then."
11. "The general was quite (a) (1) conscious (40 a) how
treacherous were the intentions of those who were (b) (49)
entertaining him, and (40 a) of the dangers from which he had
escaped (15) lately."
(a) Distinguish between "conscious" and "aware." (b)
"entertainers."
12. "If certain (a) (11) books had been published a hundred
years ago, there can be no doubt that certain recent (b) (11)
historians would have made great use of them. But it would (c)
(15 b) not, on that account, be judicious in a writer of our own
times to publish an edition of the works of one of these (b) (11)
historians, in which large extracts from these books should be
incorporated with the original text."
(a) "Mrs. Hutchinson's Memoirs." (b) "Mr. Hume." (c) Add at
the end of the sentence, "Surely not."
13. "He made no attempt to get up a petition, (32) though he did not
like the new representative quite so well as (a) (37 a) his
colleagues."
(a) "as did his colleagues" or "as he liked his colleagues."
14. "Though he was (a) (15) obstinate and (15) unprincipled, yet
he could not face an angered father (15 a) in spite of his
effrontery."
(a) Begin with "Obstinate."
15. "He was known to his country neighbours (a) (15) during more
than forty years as a gentleman of cultivated mind, (40 a) whose
principles were high, (40 a) with polished address, happy in his
family, and (b) (40 a) actively discharging local duties; and
(40 a) among political men, as an honest, industrious, and
sensible member of Parliament, (40 a) without (c) eagerness to
display his talents, (40 a) who (10 g) was stanch to his
party, and attentive to the interests of those whose (d) (47 a)
representative he was."
(a) "During more &c.," is emphatic, and affects the latter as
well as the former half of the sentence: hence it should stand
first. (b) "in the discharge of." (c) "not eager." (d)
Condense into one word.
16. "The poor think themselves no more disgraced by taking bribes at
elections than (a) (37 a) the rich by offering them."
(a) Write (1) "Than the rich think themselves disgraced," or
(2) "Than they think the rich disgraced."
17. "We are told that the Sultan Mahmoud, by his perpetual wars, (a)
(41) and his tyranny, (a) (41) had filled his dominions with (b)
(1) misfortune and (c) (11) calamity, and greatly (d) (11)
diminished the population of the Persian Empire. This great Sultan
had (e) (50) a Vizier. We are not (f) (55) (15) informed
whether he was a humorist or an enthusiast, (g) but he pretended
(h) that he had learned from (i) (11) some one how to understand
the language of birds, so that he (j) (5) knew what was said by
any bird that opened its mouth. (k) (44) One evening he was with the
Sultan, returning from hunting. They saw a couple of owls which (10
g) were sitting upon a tree (l) (8) which grew near an old
wall out of a heap of rubbish. The Sultan said (6) he should like to
know what the two owls were saying to one another, and asked the
(m) Vizier to listen to their discourse and give him an account of
it. The Vizier, (n) (31) pretending to be very attentive to the
owls, approached the tree. He (o) returned to the Sultan and said
that (6) he had heard part of their conversation, but did not wish to
tell him what it was. (p) (5) He, not (q) (31) being satisfied
with this answer, forced him to repeat everything the owls had said
(20) exactly. (r) (44) (5) (6) He told (5) him that the owls
were arranging a treaty of marriage between their children, and that
one of them, after agreeing to settle five hundred villages upon the
female owl, had prayed (6) that God would grant a long life to Sultan
Mahmoud, because as long as he reigned over them they would never want
ruined villages. The story says (s) that (t) (5) he was
touched with the fable, (30) and (s) that he (a) (39) from that
time forward consulted (15) the good of his people, and that he
rebuilt the towns and villages (v) which had been destroyed."
(a) "abroad … at home." (b) "ruin." (c) "desolation."
(d) "half unpeopled." (e) "The Vizier of &c." (f) "We are
not informed" is emphatic, and therefore should be inverted,
"whether he was, &c., we are not informed." (g) "but he" will
be omitted when "the Vizier" is made the subject of "pretended."
(h) "Pretended" once meant "claimed," "professed." Write
"professed." (i) "a certain dervish." (j) Introduce a new
subject that you may substitute "Vizier" for "he," thus: "so that
not a bird could open its mouth, but the Vizier knew &c." (k)
"As he was, one evening, &c." (l) Note that the tree is
represented as growing out of ruins. This is in accordance with
the story of the mischief Mahmoud had done. (m) Omit this.
(n) "Suspense" is out of place in a simple narrative like this;
the sentence therefore ends with "owls." (o) "Upon his return."
(p) "The Sultan" (q) "would not be satisfied." (r) "You
must know then, &c." (s) Omit. (t) "so touched … that."
(u) end with "people." (v) Addison here uses "which"
probably because of the preceding "that." We have to choose
between sound and clearness. "Which" implies that all the
villages in the country had been destroyed, whereas the country
had been only (see above) "half unpeopled."
18. "Though this great king never permitted any pastime to interfere
with the duties of state, which he considered to be superior to (54)
all other claims and of paramount importance, and (a) (37) kept
himself so far under control that he allowed no one pursuit or
amusement to run to any excess, yet he took (54) great pleasure in
the chase, of which he was (b) (2) excessively (54) fond, and
for the purposes of which he created several large parks of
considerable (54) magnitude."
(a) Either repeat "though," or else strikeout the first
"though" and begin a new sentence after "excess." (b) Point out
the contradiction between "excessively" and what precedes.
19. "To inundate (a) (11) their land, to man their ships, to leave
their country, with all its miracles of art and industry, its cities,
its villas, and its (b) (11) pastures buried under the waves (c)
(11); to bear to a distant climate their (d) (11) faith and their
old (e) (11) liberties; to establish, with auspices that(10 a)
might perhaps be happier, the new (f) (11) constitution of their
commonwealth, in a (g) (11) foreign and strange (h) (11) land, in
the Spice Islands of the Eastern Seas, (38) were the plans which they
had the spirit to form."
(a) Introduce "dykes." (b) Introduce something peculiar to
the Dutch, e.g. "canals," "tulip gardens." (c) "of the German
Ocean." (d) The Dutch were Calvinists. (e) The country was in
old times "Batavia," so that "Batavian" would be a fit epithet to
denote what the Dutch had inherited from their forefathers. (f)
"Stadthaus," the German for "town-hall." (g) "other stars."
(h) "strange vegetation."
20. "During twenty years of unexampled prosperity, during (a)
which the wealth of the nation had shot (14 a) up and extended
its branches on every side, and the funds had (14 a) soared to
a higher point than had been ever attained before, (b) (15)
speculation had become general."
(a) Omit. (b) Begin a new sentence: "This, or Prosperity,
had increased the taste for speculation."
21. "At that time (a) (16) a mere narrow-minded pedant (for he
deserves no better name) had been set up by the literary world as a
great author, and as the supreme (b) critic, alone qualified to
deliver decisions which could never be (b) reversed upon (15
a) the literary productions of the day."
(a) End with " … one who was—for he deserves no better
name—a mere narrow-minded pedant." (b) "Which could never be
reversed" can be expressed in one word; or else "the supreme …
reversed" may be condensed into a personification: "a very Minos
of contemporary criticism."
22. "With the intention of fulfilling his promise, and (40 a)
intending also to clear himself from the suspicion that attached to
him, he determined to ascertain how (40 a) far this testimony
was corroborated, and (a) (40 a) the motives of the prosecutor,
(b) (43) who had begun the suit last Christmas."
(a) "what were." (b) Begin a new sentence, "The latter &c.,"
or "The suit had been begun &c."
23. "The Jewish nation, relying on the teaching of their prophets,
looked forward to a time when its descendants should be as numerous as
the heavenly (11) bodies, and when the products (a) (11) of
the earth should be so increased as to create an abundant (54)
plenty, when each man should rest beneath the shade of his own (a)
(11) trees, and when the instruments (11) of war should be
converted to the (11) uses of peace."
(a) Mention some "products," "trees" of Palestine.
24. "He replied (32), when he was asked the reason for his sudden
unpopularity, that he owed it to his refusal to annul the commercial
treaty, (a) (8) which(10 a') gave great displeasure to the
poorer classes."
(a) Point out the ambiguity, and remove it by (8) or (10 a').
25. "I saw my old schoolfellow again by mere accident when I was in
London at the time of the first Exhibition, (19) walking down Regent
Street and looking in at the shops."
Point out and remove the ambiguity.
26. "He remained in the House while his speech was taken into
consideration; which (52) was a common practice with him, because
the debates amused his sated mind, and indeed he used to say (a)
(6 b) that they were sometimes as good as a comedy. His Majesty
had certainly never seen a more (17) sudden turn in any comedy of
intrigue, either at his own play-house or the Duke's, than that which
this memorable debate produced."
(a) "and were sometimes, he used to say, as good &c."
27. "The Commons would not approve the war (20) expressly; neither
did they as yet condemn it (20) expressly; and (a) (18) the king
might even have obtained a supply for continuing hostilities (19) from
them, on condition of (b) redressing grievances connected with
the (c) administration of affairs at home, among which the
Declaration of Indulgence was a very important (d) (15_a_) one."
(a) Write "they were even ready to grant the king &c." (b)
Use the verb with a subject, (c) Condense all this into one
adjective, meaning "that which takes place at home." (d) End
with a noun, "importance," or "foremost place."
28. "Next to thinking clearly, (a) (5) it is useful to speak
clearly, and whatever your position in life may hereafter be it
cannot be such (54) as not to be improved by this, (b) so that
it is worth while making almost any effort to acquire (c) it, if
it is not a natural gift: (d) it being an undoubted (d) fact
that the effort to acquire it must be successful, to some extent at
least, if (d) it be moderately persevered in."
(a) "Next in utility … comes speaking clearly—a power that
must be of assistance to you &c." (b)" If, therefore, you
cannot speak clearly by nature, you &c." (c) "this power."
(d) Omit "fact;" "for undoubtedly, with moderate perseverance
&c."
29. "It (a) (38) appears to me (15) a greater victory than
Agincourt, a grander triumph of wisdom and faith and courage than even
the English constitution or (b) liturgy, to have beaten back, or
even fought against and stemmed in ever so small a degree, those
basenesses that (c) (10_a_) beset human nature, which are now
held so invincible that the influences of them are assumed as the
fundamental axioms of economic science."
(a) Begin with "To have beaten &c.," and end with "liturgy."
(b) Repeat for clearness and emphasis, "the English." (c)
"The besetting basenesses of &c."
30. "The (a) (2) unprecedented impudence of our youthful
representative reminds us forcibly of the unblushing and (54) (40)
remarkable effrontery (c) (which (26) he almost succeeds in
equalling) of the Member for St. Alban's, whom our (b) (1)
neophyte (b) (1) alluded to, in the last speech with which he
favoured those whom (47_a_) he represents, (19) as his pattern and
example."
(a) Show that "unprecedented" is inconsistent with what
follows. (b) What is the meaning of "neophyte," "alluded to"?
(c) Begin a new sentence, "Our young adventurer &c.," and end
with "and he almost succeeds in equalling his master."
31. "The (a) (1) veracity of this story is questionable, and there
is the more reason for doubting the (a) (1) truth of the narrator,
because in his remarks on the (1) observation of the Sabbath he
distinctly (a) (1) alludes to a custom that can be shown never to
have existed."
(a) Distinguish between "veracity" and "truth," "observation"
and "observance." Show the inconsistency between "allude" and
"distinctly."
32. "It (a) (5) is a most just distribution, (10 a) which the
late Mr. Tucker has dwelt upon so (b) largely in his works,
between pleasures in which we are passive, and pleasures in which we
are active. And I believe every attentive observer of human life will
assent to (c) this position, that however (d) grateful the
sensations may occasionally be in which we are passive, it is not
these, but the latter class of our pleasures, (8) which constitutes
satisfaction, (e) (38) which supply that regular stream of
moderate and miscellaneous enjoyments in (10 c) which happiness,
as distinguished from voluptuousness, consists."
(a) "There is great justice in &c." (b) Omit "so." (c)
"admit." (d) Not often now used in this sense. (e) Repeat the
antecedent, "I mean those (pleasures) &c."
33. "The prince seemed to have before him a limitless (54) prospect
of unbounded prosperity, carefully (33) trained for the (a)
tasks of the throne, and stimulated by the (a) pattern of his
father, (b) who (43) breathed his (3) last suddenly at the age
of sixty-two, just after the conclusion of the war."
(a) Find more appropriate words. (b) Begin a new sentence.
34. "On his way, he visited a son of an old friend (a) (25) who
had asked him to call upon him on his journey northward. He
(b) (5) was overjoyed to see him, and (c) he sent for one of
his most intelligent workmen and told (d) him to consider
himself at (e) his service, (30) as he himself could not take
(f) him as he (g) wished about the city."
(a) If you mean that the "son" had "asked him," write "An old
friend's son who;" if you mean that the "friend" had "asked him,"
write "He had been asked by an old friend to call, on his journey
northward, upon his son. Accordingly he visited him on his way."
(b) Use, instead of he, some name meaning "one who entertains
others." (c) Use participle, (d) "The man." (e) "the
stranger's." (f) "his guest." (g) Write "could have wished"
to make it clear that "he" means "the host."
35. "Tillotson died in this year. He was exceedingly beloved both by
King William and by Queen Mary (43), who nominated Dr. Tennison,
Bishop of Lincoln, to succeed him."
36. "(a) The entertainment was arranged with a magnificence that was
(b) perfectly stupendous and (c) most unprecedented, and
which quite kept up his Lordship's unrivalled reputation for
unparalleled hospitality, and, thanks to the unequalled energy of
Mr. Smith, who is rapidly becoming one of the most effective
toast-masters in the kingdom, the toasts were given with a spirit
quite unexampled on occasions of this nature; and indeed we were
forcibly reminded in this respect of the inimitable entertainment of
three years ago (2)."
(a) Omit most of the epithets, or soften them down. Point out
the contradictions in the sentence as it stands. (b) Write "a
remarkable magnificence that quite &c.," thus dispensing with the
following "and." (c) Show that "most" is superfluous.
37. "If we compare Shakespeare with the other dramatic authors of the
Elizabethan era, his wonderful superiority to them in the (15)
knowledge of human nature is what (15 a) principally strikes
us."
38. "The prince found himself at once in sore perplexity how to
provide himself with the commonest comforts or even necessaries of
life, when he landed on this desolate coast, being (33) accustomed to
luxury."
39. "This make-shift policy recommended itself to the succeeding
ministers (a) (50), both because they were timid and because they
were prejudiced, and they were delighted to excuse (b) (13)
themselves by quoting the example of one who (c) (34) had
controlled the Liberals and humoured the Conservatives, (37) commended
himself to the country at large by his unfailing good-humour, and
(d) (44) (37) done nothing worthy of the name of statesman."
(a) "to the timidity and prejudices of &c." (b) "shelter
themselves behind." (c) "while he had at once." (d) "had yet
done."
40. "William Shakespeare was the sun among the lesser lights of
English poetry, and a native of Stratford-on-Avon (14 a)."
41. "(15 b) I think, gentlemen, you must confess that any one of you
would have done the same (32), if you had been tempted as I was then,
placed starving and ragged among wasteful luxury and comfort,
deliberately instigated to acts of dishonesty by those whom I had been
taught from infancy to love, (a) praised when I stole, mocked or
punished when I failed to (15 a) do (b) so."
(a) Insert another infinitive beside "love." "Love" produces
"obedience." (b) Repeat the verb instead of "do so."
42. "So far from being the first (54) aggressor, he not (22)
only refused to prosecute his old friend when a favourable
opportunity presented itself for revenging himself thus upon him,
but also his friend's adviser, John Smith. Smith (a) at all (23)
events suspected, if he did not know of the coming danger, and had
given no information of it."
(a) If "at all events" qualifies "Smith," the sentence must be
altered. "Yet, however innocent his friend may have been, at all
events Smith suspected…." If the words qualify "suspected,"
place them after "suspected."
43. "It is quite true that he paid 5_s._ per day to English navvies,
and even 6s., (19) in preference to 2_s._ 6_d._ to French navvies."
44. "Having climbed to the apex of the Righi to enjoy the spectacle
of the sun-rise, I found myself so incommoded by a number of
illiterate individuals who had emerged from the hotel for a (a)
(1) similar purpose, that I determined to quit them at the earliest
practicable period; and therefore, without stopping to partake of
breakfast, I wended my way back with all possible celerity." (3)
(a) "the same."
45. "You admit that miracles are not natural. Now whatever is
unnatural is wrong, and since, by your own admission, miracles are
unnatural, it follows that miracles are wrong." (1)
46. "Who is the man that has dared to call into civilized alliance
the (a) (41) inhabitant of the woods, to delegate to the (a)
Indian the defence of our disputed rights?
(a) Insert some antithetical or other epithets.
47. "A (a) very (11) small proportion indeed of those who have
attempted to solve this problem (b) (19) have succeeded in obtaining
even a plausible solution."
(a) State what proportion succeeded, or, if you like, what
failed: "not one in a hundred." (b) Begin, "Of all those that
&c."
48. "To be suddenly (a) (47 a) brought into contact with a
system (8) which forces one to submit to wholesale imposture, and
to being (40 a) barbarously ill-treated, naturally repels (a)
(15 a) one."
(a) Write, either (1) "Collision … causes a natural
repulsion," or (2) "When brought into contact … one is
naturally repelled," or (if "ill-treatment" is emphatic), (3)
"One is naturally repelled by collision with &c."
49. "We annex a letter recently addressed by Mr. ——'s direction to
the Editor of the ——, in contradiction of statements, equally
untrue, which appeared in that periodical, and (a) (9) which the
editor has undertaken to insert in the next number…. I am sure that
all must regret that statements so (b) (51) utterly erroneous
should have (c) (23) first appeared in a publication of such high
character."
(a) What the writer intended to express was that the editor had
undertaken to insert, not the "statements," but the
"contradiction." (b) Omit either "so" or "utterly." (c)
"appeared first," or, "for the first time."
50. "This is a book which (10 a) is short and amusing, which
(10 a) can be easily (a) understood, which (10 a) is
admirably adapted for the purpose for which it (b) was (54)
written; and (10 e) which ought to be more popular than the last
work which (10 a) was published by the same author."
(a) Express "which can be understood" in one adjective. (b)
"Its purpose."
51. "When thousands are left (19) without (40) pity and without
(40) attention (19) on a field of battle, amid (40) the insults of
an enraged foe and (40) the trampling of horses, while the blood from
their wounds, freezing as it flows, binds them to the earth, and (40)
they are exposed to the piercing air, it (15 a) must be indeed a
painful scene."
The whole sentence must be remedied by (40).
52. "(a) The youth was naturally thoughtful, and disposed (19)
besides by his early training—(31) which had been conducted with
great care, the object of his parents being to pave (14) his way
as far as possible over the stormy (14) sea of temptation and to
lead him into the harbour of virtue—to a sincere (b) (1)
remorse (19) for the (b) (1) crimes that he had committed in the
sight of heaven, and also for his recent (b) (1) sin in breaking
the laws of his country."
(a) First state the reasons for his being "disposed." "The
youth was naturally thoughtful; moreover, his early training had
been conducted with great care by his parents, whose &c. …. He
was therefore disposed &c." (b) What is the difference between
"remorse" and "repentance," between "sin" and "crime"?
53. "(a) One day (54) early in the morning, the general was
approached by a messenger, (30) in the midst of the entanglements and
perplexities which had unexpectedly surprised him, when the
perilous hour of (54) danger was at hand, and (37), in spite of
their promises, even the tribes that were well disposed (54) and
friendly, were threatening to desert him, and (54) leave him to
face the enemy (b) (23) alone."
Condense the sentence by omitting some of the italicized words,
e.g. (a) "Early one morning." (b) Though there is no real
ambiguity (unless a wrong emphasis is placed on "enemy"), yet, in
strictness, "alone" ought to qualify "enemy." Write therefore,
"alone in the face of the enemy."
54. "A man (a) (10 d) who neglected the ordinary duties *of*
life, and, immersed in study, devoted himself to grand plans for the
benefit of mankind, (b) (44) and refused to provide for the wants
of those dependent on him, and suffered his aged relatives to become
paupers because he would not help them, (c) would, in my opinion,
(34) be a bad man, and not altogether (d) (40 a) without
hypocrisy."
(a) "If a man." (b) "if he refused," or "while he refused."
(c) "such a man" or "he." (d) "to some extent a hypocrite."
55. "I cannot believe in the guilt of (a) one (b) (10 e)
who, whatever may have been said to the contrary, can be shown, and
has been shown by competent testimony proceeding from those who are
said to have carefully examined the facts, in spite (23) of many
obstacles, to have resisted all attempts to (29) induce him to leave
his situation, (c) (29) to consult his own interests and to (29)
establish a business of his own."
(a) "his guilt;" (b) (1) "for, whatever &c…. it can be
shown by &c…. that, in spite of &c., he resisted." Or (2)
insert "in spite … obstacles" between "have" and "carefully."
(c) (1) "for the purpose of consulting … and establishing."
Or (2) write "and to consult his own interests by establishing
&c."
56. "We must seek for the origin of our freedom, (a) (37)
prosperity, and (a) (37) glory, in that and only (b) that[18]
portion of our annals, (30) though it (c) is sterile and
obscure. The great English people was (d) then formed; the
notional (e) disposition began (d) then to exhibit those
peculiarities which it has ever since (e) possessed; and our
fathers (d) then became emphatically islanders, (f) in their
politics, (a) feelings, and (a) manners, and (30 a) not
merely in their geographical position."
(a) Repeat the Pronominal Adjective, (b) Express the emphatic
"only that" by beginning the sentence thus: "It is in that
portion of our annals &c." (c) Omit. (d) "It was then that
&c." (e) Use words implying something more marked than
"disposition," and more forcible than "possessed;" in the
latter case, "retained." (f) Repeat "islanders."
57. "(a) He was the universal (54) favourite of (54) all (8)
who knew him, and cemented many friendships at this period, (a)
(33) (moving in the highest circle of society, and, as he (b) (50)
had a (4 a) certain property, being independent of the profits
of literature), and soon completely extinguished the breath of slander
which at the outset of his career had threatened to sap the
foundations of his reputation."
(a) Begin "Moving in &c." (b) "rendered independent of … by
&c." Show that Rule (14) is violated by the metaphors.
58. "The outward and material form of that city which, during the
brief period which (10 a) is comprised in our present book,
reached the highest pitch of military, artistic, and literary glory,
was of this (a) (15) nature. The progress of the (b) (5)
first has been already traced."
(a) Begin the sentence with "Such was." (b) By "the first" is
meant "military glory."
59. "The detachment not only failed to take the fort, (30) spite of
their numbers and the weakness of the garrison, but also to capture
the small force that was encamped outside the town, and was, after
some sharp fighting, driven back with inconsiderable loss."
Point out the ambiguity. Remedy it by inserting either "which,"
or "the assailants."
60. "(a) (b) Believing that these reforms can only (c) (21)
be effected as public opinion is prepared for them, and that (5)
this will be more or less advanced in different localities, the Bill
of the Association, (a) (31) which has been for a (3)
considerable period in draft, and will be introduced in the next
Session of Parliament, provides for placing (d) (3) the control
in regard to the points above-mentioned in the (3) hands of the
ratepayers of each locality; the power to be exercised through
representative Licensing Boards to be periodically elected by them."
(a) Place the parenthesis first, as an independent sentence:
"The Bill of the Association has been … Parliament." (b) What
noun is qualified by "believing?" Write "In the belief." (c)
"effected only so far as they are in accordance with public
opinion, which &c." (d) "it, or, the Bill provides that the
ratepayers … shall receive control … and shall exercise this
control."
61. "I think they are very (1) nice persons, for they kept me amused
for a long (a) (11) time together yesterday by their (1) nice
stories all about what they (b) have experienced in Japan, where
they had been for (a) ever so long, and (c) (43) where they said
that the natives ripped up their (d) (5) stomachs."
(a) Mention some time. (b) "experiences" or "adventures."
(c) "among other things, they told us &c." (d) "their own."
62. "To contend for advantageous monopolies, which are regarded with a
dislike and a suspicion (a) which daily (10 a) increases, (30)
however natural it may be to be annoyed at the loss of that which one
has once possessed, (15 a) is useless."
(a) A compound adjective can be used, including "daily."
63. "Upon entering the rustic place of entertainment to partake of
some refreshment, my nerves were horrified by lighting on a number of
boisterous individuals who were singing some species of harvest song,
and simultaneously imbibing that cup which, if it cheers, also
inebriates; and when, banished from their society by the fumes of the
fragrant weed, I wended my way to the apartment which adjoined the one
in which I had hoped to rest my weary limbs, I found an interesting
assortment of the fairer sex, who were holding a separate
confabulation apart from the revels of their rougher spouses."
Write "village inn," "next room," &c., for these absurd
circumlocutions. See (3).
64. "When Burgoyne was born, in 1782, Napoleon and Wellington were
both boys (11)."
Napoleon studied at Brienne, Wellington at Eton. Mention this,
and, in order to imply the boyhood, call Wellington "Arthur
Wellesley."
65. "An honourable friend of mine, who is now, I believe, near
me—(38) to whom I never can on any occasion refer without feelings of
respect, and, on this subject, (36) feelings of the most grateful
homage; (38) whose abilities upon this occasion, as upon some former
ones, are not entrusted merely to the perishable eloquence of the
(a) day, but will live to be the admiration of that (a) hour when
all of us are mute and most of us forgotten: (b) (38) has told you
that prudence is (52) the first of virtues, and (52) can never be
used in the cause of vice."
(a) Though "of the day" is a recognized expression for
"ephemeral" or "transitory," yet to use "day" for a short time,
and "hour" for a longer, is objectionable. Write moment for
day. Else write future for hour. (b) "—this gentleman
has told &c."
66. "To see the British artisan and his wife on the Sabbath, neat and
clean and cheerful, with their children by their sides, (a) (19)
disporting themselves under the open canopy of heaven, is (15)
pleasant."
(a) There is no reasonable ground for mistaking the sense here,
as the context makes it clear; but since Lord Shaftesbury was
questioned whether he meant disporting to qualify "artisan and
his wife" or "children," write "and, by their sides, their
children disporting &c."
67. "Even if (a) it were attended with extenuating circumstances,
such conduct would deserve severe reprobation, (b) and it is the
more called for because it would seem that (c) it was the
intention of the author of the crime, in perpetrating (e) it, to
inflict all the misery that was possible, upon his victim." See (5).
(a) Omit "it were." (b) "which." (c) "to have been." (d)
Express "author of the crime" in one word. (e) Use the noun.
68. "The (a) (1) observance of the heavenly bodies must have been
attended with great difficulties, (b) (30) before the telescope was
(a) (1) discovered, and it is not to be wondered at if the
investigations of astronomers were often unsatisfactory, and failed to
produce complete (a) (1) persuasion, (30) (15, a) under these
disadvantages."
(a) What is the difference between "observance" and
"observation," "discover" and "invent," "persuasion" and
"conviction"? (b) Begin "Before &c."
69. "He plunged into the sea once more, (30) not content with his
previous exertions. After a long and dangerous struggle, he succeeded
in reaching a poor woman that was crying piteously for help, and (a)
(35) was at last hauled safely to shore."
(a) Point put and remedy the ambiguity by inserting "he" or by
writing "who," according to the meaning.
70. "Sir John Burgoyne himself, face to face with Todleben, became
(a) (1) conscious of the difference between the fortifications of
San Sebastian and of Sebastopol, (b) which (10 e) was (c) (12)
very weak compared with Metz or Paris."
(a) What is the exact meaning of conscious? (b) Avoid the
relative, by repeating the name, with a conjunction, (c)
"weakness itself."
71. "Upon Richard's leaving the (c) stage, the Commonwealth was
again set up; and the Parliament which Cromwell had (a) broken was
brought together; but the army and they fell into new disputes: so
they were again (a) broken by the army: and upon that the nation
was like to fall into (b) (11) great convulsions."
(a) Modern Eng., "broken up." (b) "violently convulsed."
(c) It is a question whether this metaphor is in good taste.
The meaning is that Richard "retired from public life." It might
be asserted that Richard, the Commonwealth, the Parliament are
regarded as so many puppets on a "stage." But this is extremely
doubtful. Make Parliament the principal subject: "When Richard
retired … and when the Commonwealth &c…. the Parliament was
… but, falling into a dispute with &c., it was…." See (18)
and (43).
72. "What a revolution in the military profession! He began with (a)
(11) unnecessary formality, and (b) (11) inefficient weapons,
and ended with (c) (b) (11) greatly improved fire-arms."
(a) "pig-tail and pipe-clay." (b) "Six-pounders and
flint-locks" are now inefficient compared with
"twenty-four-pounders and breech-loaders." (c) Something is
wanted antithetical to (a), perhaps "loose drill" or "open
order."
73. "Children fear to go in the dark. Men fear death in the same way.
The fear of children is increased by tales. So is the fear of death.
The contemplation of death, as the 'wages of sin,' and passage to
another world, is holy and religious. The fear of it, as a tribute due
unto nature, is weak. In religious meditations on death there is
sometimes mixture of vanity and of superstition."
Insert connecting adverbs or conjunctions. See (44).
74. "I have often heard him reiterate (54) repeatedly that he
would never again, if a safe (54) and secure path was open to him,
prefer the perilous (54) road of danger, however alluring (54)
and attractive the latter might be."
75. "I thought in my dream that when my friend asked me whether I did
not observe anything curious in the conduct of the pigeons, I (a) (4
a) remarked that if any one of the birds was so bold as to take an
atom from a heap of grain in the midst of them, (31) (which (b) a
detachment guarded, and which, being continually increased and never
eaten, seemed useless), all the rest turned against him and pecked him
to death for the (c) (50) action."
(a) Point out the ambiguity. (b) This should come earlier in
the sentence, and not as a parenthesis. "I noticed a heap of
grain in the midst of them, guarded by … Being continually …,
to all appearance, useless: yet." (c) "theft."
76. "If this low view of the royal office becomes generally adopted,
then sovereigns who (8) have always hitherto commanded the respect
of Englishmen will by degrees fall into disrespect."
Point out the ambiguity. Show how it might be removed (a) by
punctuation, (b) by altering "who."
77. "I struck the man in self-defence. I explained this to the
magistrate. He would not believe me. Witnesses were called to support
my statements. He committed me to prison. He had the right to do this.
It is a right that is rarely exercised in such circumstances. I
remonstrated."
See (44). Insert conjunctions or connecting adverbs.
78. "He attained a very distinguished position by mere (15)
perseverance and common sense, which (52) (10 a) qualities are
perhaps mostly underrated, (30) though he was deficient in tact and
not remarkable for general ability."
79. "Vindictiveness, which (a) (50) is a fault, (b) and
which may be defined as anger (10 a) which is caused not by sin
nor by crime but by personal injury, ought to be carefully
distinguished from resentment, which (a) (50) is a virtue,
(b) and which is anger (49) which is natural and (c) right
caused by an act (d) which is unjust, because it is unjust, (30 a)
not because it is inconvenient."
(a) "The fault of vindictiveness;" "the virtue of resentment."
(b) Omit (c) "Right" cannot be used as an adjective, but
"righteous" can. (d) "an act of injustice."
80. "(a) He told his friend that (a) his brother was surprised
that (a) he had given so small a contribution, for (a) he was
(b) (12) a very rich man, in spite of (a) his recent losses
and the bad state of trade, (19) (30) compared with himself."
(a) Use (6). (b) What Asian king was proverbial for wealth?
81. "(a) (15 b) It must be indeed wrong to (a) crucify a Roman
citizen if to (b) (32) slay one is almost parricide, to (b)
scourge him is a monstrous crime, and to (b) bind him is an
outrage."
(a) "What must it be…?"
(b) See (40).
82. "The universal (54) opinion of all the citizens was that the
citadel had been (15) betrayed, (30) having been captured in broad
daylight by a very small number of the enemy, and those unprovided
with scaling ladders, and admitted by a postern gate, (15 a) and
much wearied by a long march."
In any case "betrayed" must come at the end of a sentence. The
sentence may be converted into two sentences: "The citadel had
been captured…. Naturally therefore …;" or, "The opinion …
for it had been captured…." Else, if one sentence be used,
write "As the citadel had been captured &c."
83. "This author surpassed all those who were living (a) at the
same time with him in the forcible (b) manner in which he could
address (c) an appeal to the popular sympathy, and in the ease
with which he could draw towards (a) himself the hearts of his
readers."
(a) Express in one word. (b) "force with." (c) Omit.
84. "This great statesman was indeed a pillar of commerce, and a star
in the financial world. He guided or impelled the people from the
quicksands of Protection and false political economy to the safe
harbour of Free Trade; and (a) (14 a) saved the country several
millions."
(a) It would be well to literalize the preceding metaphors.
Else the literal statement must be changed into a metaphor.
85. "The ministers were most unwilling to meet the Houses, (a) (43)
(51) because even the boldest of them (though their counsels were
lawless (15) and desperate) had too much value for his (b) (11)
personal safety to think of resorting to the (c) (12) unlawful
modes of extortion that had been familiar to the preceding age."
(a) Begin a new sentence with "Lawless and desperate though
their counsels had been &c." (b) "neck." (c) Insert some of
these unlawful modes, "benevolences, ship-money, and the other
&c."
86. "We will not (a) (15) pretend to guess what our
grandchildren may think of the character of Lord Byron, as exhibited
in (15 a) his poetry." No writer ever had the whole eloquence of
scorn, misanthropy, and (a) (15) despair (15 a) so completely
at his command. That fountain (b) (12) of bitterness was never
dry."
(a) "We will not pretend to guess" and "despair" are intended
by the author to be emphatic. (b) "Marah."
87. "The captain asked to be allowed fifty men, a supply of food, and
one hundred and fifty breech-loaders. (44) The general replied coldly
that he could not let his subordinate have (a) (4) anything that
he wanted. (44) The captain was forced to set out (34) with an
insufficient force, spite of the superabundance of soldiers doing
nothing in the camp (34), and with every obstacle put in his way by a
general who from the first had resolved not even to give him ordinary
assistance, (b) (10 a') which the captain had for some time
anticipated."
(a) Point out and remove the ambiguity. (b) Write, according
to the meaning, " … assistance that" or " … a resolution
that."
88. "I am a practical man, and disbelieve in everything (8) which is
not practical; theories (a) which amuse philosophers and pedants
have no attractions for me, (30) for this reason."
(a) What difference in the meaning would be caused by the use
of "that" for the second "which"?
89. "Yet, when that discovery drew no other severity but the (11 a)
turning (a) him out of office, and the (11 a) passing a
sentence (b) condemning him to die for it (31) (which was
presently pardoned, and he was after a short confinement restored to
his liberty), all men believed that the king knew of the letter,
(c) (43) and that (6 b) the pretended confession of the secretary
was only collusion to lay the jealousies of the king's (d) (11 a)
favouring popery, (e) (43) which still hung upon him, (30)
notwithstanding his (e) writing on the Revelation, and his (e)
affecting to enter on all occasions into controversy, (e)
asserting in particular that the Pope was Antichrist."
(a) "expulsion from." (b) "a pretended sentence to death—a
pretence that was soon manifested by his pardon and liberation."
(c) Begin a new sentence: "'The secretary's pretended
confession,' it was said, 'was &c.'" (d) "the suspicion that
the king favoured Popery." (e) The juxtaposition of the two
verbal nouns, "writing" and "affecting," with the participle
"asserting," is harsh. Write, "For, notwithstanding that he
affected controversy, and attacked the Pope as Antichrist in his
treatise on the Book of Revelation, the king was still
suspected."
90. "The opinion that the sun is fixed was once too (a) (1)
universal to be easily shaken, and a similar prejudice has often
(b) rendered the progress of new inventions (15 a) very slow,
(19) arising from the numbers of the believers, and not (36) the
reasonableness of the belief."
(a) Write "general." Show the absurdity of appending "too" to
"universal." (b) What single word can be substituted for
"rendered slow"?
91. "The rest of the generals were willing to surrender
unconditionally, (30) depressed by this unforeseen calamity; (4)
only the young colonel, who retained his presence of mind,
represented to them that they were increasing the difficulties of a
position in itself very difficult (19) (15, a) by their conduct."
92. "To (a) (31) an author who is, in his expression of any
sentiment, wavering between the (b) demands of perspicuity and
energy (of which the (c) (40 a) former of course requires the
first care, lest (40 a) he should fail of both), and (37) doubting
whether the (d) phrase which (8) has (e) the most force and
brevity will be (f) readily taken (g) in, it may (h) (3) be
recommended to use both (d) expressions; first, (h) to expound
the sense sufficiently to be clearly understood, and then (i) to
contract it into the most compendious and striking form."
(a) Write "When an author &c." (b) Can be omitted. (c)
Assimilate the constructions: "Of which the former must, of
course, be aimed at first, lest both be missed." (d) Use
"expression" or else "phrase" in both places. (e) Assimilate
the construction to what follows; write "that is most forcible
and brief." (f) Insert "also." (g) "understood." (h) "let
him use …; first let him expound." (i) Omit.
93. "When I say 'a great man,' I not (22) only mean a man
intellectually great but also morally, (38) who (8) has no
preference for diplomacy (a) (23) at all events which (10 a)
is mean, petty, and underhanded to secure ends which (8) can be
secured by an honest policy equally (20) well, (38) who (8) does
not resemble Polonius, (b) who prefers to get at truth by untruthful
tricks, and (b) who considers truth a carp which (10 g) is to
be caught by the bait falsehood. We cannot call a petty intriguer
great (c), (30) though we may be forced to call an unscrupulous man
by that (15 a) name."
(a) "at all events no preference." (b) Why is who right
here? If you like, you can write, "does not, like Polonius,
prefer … and consider." (c) End with "we cannot give the name
to a petty intriguer."
94. "I regret that I have some (a) (3) intelligence which (10 a)
is of a most (3) painful nature, and which I must tell you at
once, though (b) I should like to defer it on (c) (40 a)
account of your ill-health, and because (c) (40 a) you have
already had many troubles, and (40 a) owing to the natural
dislike which (8) a friend must always feel to say that (10 f)
which is unpleasant. Many old friends in this district have turned
against you: I scarcely like to write the words: only (21) I remain
faithful to you, and I am sure you will believe that I am doing that
(10 f) which is best for your interests."
(a) "news." (b) In a letter these words should remain is they
are; but if a period is desired, they must (30) come last,
after "unpleasant." (c) Write "because of your ill-health …
and the troubles … and because of…."
95. "The general at once sent back word that the enemy had suddenly
appeared on the other side of the river, and [(35) or (37)] then (a)
retreated. (b) It was thought that (b) it would have shown
more (c) (1) fortitude on his (3) part if he had attacked the
fortifications, (d) which were not tenable for more than a week at
all events. Such was the (54) universal opinion, at (23) least,
of (54) all the soldiers."
(a) Point out the ambiguity. (b) "It was thought he would
have shown &c." (c) Distinguish between "fortitude" and
"bravery." (d) What would be the meaning if "that" were
substituted for "which"? It will be perhaps better to substitute
for "which," "since they."
96. "A notion has sprung up that the Premier, though he can legislate,
cannot govern, and has attained an influence which renders it
imperative, if this Ministry is to go on, that (a) it should be
dispersed."
(a) Who or what "has attained"? Write "and this notion has
become so powerful that, unless it is dispersed…."
97. "Those who are habitually silent (a) (3) by disposition and
morose are less liable to the fault of exaggerating than those who are
habitually (a) (3) fond of talking, and (40 a) of (a) (3)
a pleasant disposition."
(a) Each of these periphrases must be condensed into a single
adjective.
98. "This author, (a) (31) though he is not (b) altogether (c)
guiltless of (b) occasional (c) faults of exaggeration,
which are to be found as plentifully in his latest works as in those
which he (d) published when he was beginning his career as an
author, yet, notwithstanding these (e) defects, surpassed all
those who were living at the (f) same time with him in the
clear (g) manner in which he could, as it were, see into the
feelings of the people at large, and in the power—a power that
indeed could not be (f) resisted—with which he drew (f)
toward himself the sympathy of those who (f) perused his
works." See (54).
(a) Convert the parenthesis into a separate sentence. (b) One
of these words is unnecessary. (c) One of these is unnecessary.
(d) Condense: "his earliest." (e) Omit these words as
unnecessary. (f) Express all this in one word. (g) "clearness
with."
99. "Among the North (a) (23) American Indians I had indeed
heard of the perpetration of similar atrocities; but it seemed
intolerable that such things should occur in a civilized land: and I
rushed from the room at once, leaving the wretch where he stood, with
his tale half told, (30) horror-stricken at his crime."
(a) Make it evident whether the speaker once lived among the
North American Indians, or not, and show who is
"horror-stricken."
100. "His (1) bravery under this painful operation and the (1)
fortitude he had shown in heading the last charge in the recent
action, (30) though he was wounded at the time and had been unable
to use his right arm, and was the only officer left in his regiment,
out of twenty who were alive the day before, (19) inspired every one
with admiration."
Begin, "Out of twenty officers &c…. Though wounded &c…. he
had headed." "The bravery he had then shown and…."
101. "Moral as well as (41) other considerations must have weight
when we are selecting an officer (a) that (10 b) will be placed
in a position that will task his intelligence (b) (18) and his
fidelity."
(a) The repetition of "that" is objectionable. Use "to fill."
(b) "and" can be replaced by some other conjunction to suit
what precedes.
102. "It happened that at this time there were a few Radicals in the
House who (8) could not forgive the Prime Minister for being a
Christian."
Point out the difference of meaning, according as we read "who"
or "that."
103. "It cannot be doubted (15 b) that the minds of a vast
number of men would be left poor shrunken things, full of melancholy
and indisposition, and unpleasing to themselves, if (32) there were
taken out of men's minds vain opinions, false valuations, imaginations
as one (a) would, and the (15 a) like."
(a) The meaning (which cannot easily be more tersely expressed
than in the original) is "castles in the air," "pleasant
fancies."
104. "God never wrought a miracle to refute atheism, because His
ordinary works refute it. (a) A little philosophy inclines man's
mind to atheism: depth in philosophy brings men's minds back to
religion. (44) While the mind of man looks upon second causes
scattered, it may sometimes rest in them; (44) when it beholds the
chain of them confederate and linked together, it must needs
acknowledge a Providence. (44) That school which is most accused of
atheism most clearly demonstrates the truth of religion."
(a) Insert a suspensive conjunction. See (34).
105. "The spirit of Liberty and the spirit of Nationality were once
for all dead; (a) (5) it might be for a time a pious duty, but it
could not continue always expedient or (c) (15) (18) profitable
to (b) (13) mourn (c) (15 a) for their loss. Yet this is
the (b) (13) feeling of the age of Trajan."
(a) Omit. (b) "To sit weeping by their grave;" "attitude."
(c) Notice that "expedient or profitable" are emphatic, as is
shown by "yet" in the next sentence. Make it evident therefore,
by their position, that these words are more emphatic than "to
mourn &c."
106. "(a) If we ask (15 b) what was the nature of the force by
which this change was effected, (a) we find it to have been (b)
the force that had seemed almost dead for many generations—(38) of
theology."
(a) Omit these words. (b) Begin a new sentence: "It was a
force &c."
107. "I remember Longinus highly recommends a description of a storm
by Homer, because (a) (5) (c) he has not amused himself with
little fancies upon the occasion, as authors of an inferior genius,
whom he mentions, (b) (15 a) have done, (30) but (c) because
he has gathered together those (d) (1) events which are the most
apt to terrify the imagination, and (35) really happen in the raging
of a tempest."
(a) "The poet." (b) Omit "have done" and write "like some
authors." (c) Suspend the sentence by writing "the poet …
instead of … has." (d) What is the word for "that which
happens around one, or in connection with some central object?"
108. "To have passed (a) (3) in a self-satisfied manner through
twenty years of office, letting things take their own course; to have
(b) sailed with consummate sagacity, never against the tide of
popular (c) judgement; to have left on record as the sole title to
distinction among English ministers a peculiar art of (d) sporting
with the heavy, the awful responsibility of a nation's destiny with
the jaunty grace of a juggler (11) (e) playing with his golden
ball; to have joked and intrigued, and bribed and (f) deceived,
with the result of having done nothing (g), (h) either for the
poor, (h) or for religion (for (i) which indeed he did worse
than nothing), (h) or for art and science, (h) or for the
honour or concord or even the financial prosperity of the nation, (38)
is surely a miserable basis on which the reputation of a great (15)
statesman can be (k) (15 a) founded."
(a) "complacently." (b) "Sail" implies will and effort: use a
word peculiar to a helpless ship, so as to contrast paradoxically
with "sagacity." (c) Use a word implying less thought and
deliberation. (d) With is too often repeated; write "bearing"
so as to introduce the illustration abruptly. (e) "tossing."
(f) Use a word implying a particular kind of "deceit," not
"lying," but the next thing to "lying." (g) Insert the word
with a preceding and intensifying adverb, "absolutely nothing."
(h) Instead of "either," "or," repeat "nothing." (i) The
parenthesis breaks the rhythm. Write "nothing, or worse than
nothing." (k) "to found."
109. "A glance at the clock will make you (1) conscious that it is
nearly three in the morning, and I therefore ask you, gentlemen,
instead of wasting more time, to put this question to yourselves, 'Are
we, or are we not, here, for the purpose of (1) eliminating the
truth?'"
110. "The speech of the Right Honourable member, so far from
unravelling (14) the obscurities of this knotty question, is
eminently calculated to mislead his supporters (a) (8 a) who
have not made a special study of it. It may be (b) (23) almost
asserted of every statement (8) which he has made that the very (1)
converse is the fact."
(a) The meaning appears to be, not "all his supporters," but
"those of his supporters who:" the convenience of writing "his
supporters that" is so great that I should be disposed to use
"that." (b) "Every," not "asserted," requires the juxtaposition
of "almost."
111. "The provisions of the treaty which (8) require the consent of
the Parliament of Canada await its assembling."
Point out the meaning conveyed by which, and by that.
112. "Mrs. Smith demonstrated (26), in opposition to the general
dictum of the press, that (a) there had been a reaction against
woman's suffrage, that there had really been a gain of one vote in the
House of Commons."
(a) Substitute "instead of," and erase the second "that."
113. "The practice of smoking hangs like a gigantic (14 a) cloud of
evil over the country."
FOOTNOTES:
[18] That which treats of the thirteenth century.
CONTINUOUS EXERCISES.
CLEARNESS.
The following exercises consist of extracts from Burnet, Butler, and
Clarendon, modernized and altered with a view to remove obscurity and
ambiguity. The modernized version will necessarily be inferior to the
original in unity of style, and in some other respects. The charm of
the author's individuality, and the pleasant ring of the old-fashioned
English, are lost. It is highly necessary that the student should
recognize this, and should bear in mind that the sole object is to
show how the meaning in each case might have been more clearly
expressed.
Occasionally expressions have been altered, not as being in themselves
obscure or objectionable, but as indicating a habit of which beginners
should beware. For example, in the extract from Burnet, he is often
altered, not because, in the particular context, the pronoun presents
any obscurity, but because Burnet's habit of repeating he is faulty.
These exercises can be used in two ways. The pupil may either have his
book open and be questioned on the reasons for each alteration, or,
after studying the two versions, he may have the original version
dictated to him, and then he may reproduce the parallel version, or
something like it, on paper.
LORD CLARENDON.
The principal faults in this style are, long heterogeneous sentences
(43), use of phrases for words (47 a), ambiguous use of pronouns
(5), excessive separation of words grammatically connected together
(19).
ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION.
(44) It will not be impertinent And now, in order to explain, as
nor unnatural to this (50) far as possible, how so prodigious
present discourse, to set down an alteration could take place in
in this place the present temper so short a time, and how the[19]
and constitution of both Houses royal power could fall so low as
of Parliament, and (34) of the to be unable to support itself,
court itself, (30) that (5) it its dignity, or its faithful
may be the less wondered at, that servants, it will be of use to set
so prodigious an alteration should down here, where it comes most
be made in so short a time, and naturally, some account of the[20]
(37) the crown fallen so low, that present temper and composition,
it could neither support itself not only of both Houses of
nor its own majesty, nor those Parliament, but also of the court
who would (47 a) appear itself.
faithful to it.
* * * * * * * * * *
(Here follows a description of the House of Lords.)
In the House of Commons were many In the House of Commons
persons of wisdom and gravity, who there were many men of wisdom
(7) being possessed of great and and judgment whose high
plentiful fortunes, though they position and great wealth disposed
were undevoted enough to the them, in spite of their indifference
court, (19) had all imaginable to the court, to feel
duty for the king, and affection a most loyal respect for the
to the government established(47 king, and a great affection for
a) by law or ancient custom; the ancient constitutional
(43) and without doubt, the major government of the country. Indeed,
part of that (54) body it cannot be doubted that
consisted of men who had no mind the majority had no intention to
to break the peace of the kingdom, break the peace of the kingdom
or to make any considerable or to make any considerable
alteration in the government of alteration in Church or State.
Church or State: (43) and Consequently, from the very
therefore (18) all inventions outset, it was necessary to resort
were set on foot from the (15) to every conceivable device
beginning to work upon (5) for the purpose of perverting
them, and (11) corrupt (5) this honest majority into rebellion.
them, (43) (45) by suggestions
"of the dangers (8) which With some, the appeal was
threatened all that was precious addressed to their patriotism.
to the subject (19) in their They were warned "of the
liberty and their property, by dangers that threatened [all
overthrowing (47 a) or that was precious in] the liberty
overmastering the law, and (47 and property of the subject,
a) subjecting it to an if the laws were to be made
arbitrary (47_a_) power, and by subservient to despotism, and
countenancing Popery to the if Popery was to be encouraged
subversion of the Protestant to the subversion of the Protestant
religion," and then, by religion."
infusing terrible apprehensions
into some, and so working upon The fears of others were appealed
their fears, (6 b) "of (11 a) to. "There was danger," so[21] it
being called in question for was said, "that they might be
somewhat they had done," by which called to account for something
(5) they would stand in need of they had done, and they would then
(5) their protection; and (43) stand in need of the help of those
(45) raising the hopes of others, who were now giving them this
"that, by concurring (47 a) timely warning." In others, hopes
with (5) them (5) they were excited, and offices,
should be sure to obtain offices honours, and preferments were held
and honours and any kind of out as the reward of adhesion.
preferment." Though there were too Too many were led away by one or
many corrupted and misled by these other of these temptations, and
several temptations, and (19) indeed some needed no other
others (40 a) who needed no temptation than their innate
other temptations than from the fierceness and barbarity and the
fierceness and barbarity of malice they had contracted against
their (47 a) own natures, and the Church and the court. But the
the malice they had contracted leaders of the conspiracy were not
against the Church and against the many. The flock was large and
court; (43) yet the number was not submissive, but the shepherds were
great of those in whom the very few.
government of the rest (47 a)
was vested, nor were there many
who had the absolute authority
(13) to lead, though there were a
multitude (13) that was disposed
to follow.
(44) (30) Mr. Pym was looked upon Of these, Mr. Pym was thought
as the man of greatest experience superior to all the rest in
in parliaments, where he had parliamentary experience. To this
(50) served very long, and was advantage he added habits of
always (50) a man of business, business acquired from his
(7) being an officer in the continuous service in the
Exchequer, (43) and of a good Exchequer. He had also a good
reputation generally, (30) though reputation generally; for, though
known to be inclined to the known to be inclined to the
Puritan party; yet not of those Puritan party, yet he was not so
furious resolutions against the fanatically set against the Church
Church as the other leading men as the other leaders. In this
were, and (44) wholly devoted to respect he resembled the Earl of
the Earl of Bedford, who had Bedford, to whom he was
nothing of that spirit. thoroughly devoted.
(Here follow descriptions of Hampden and Saint John.)
It was generally believed that These three persons, with the
these three persons, with the three peers mentioned before, were
other three lords mentioned united in the closest confidence,
before, were of the most intimate and formed the mainspring of the
and entire trust with each other, party. Such at least was the
and made the engine which (47 general belief. But it was clear
a) moved all the rest; (30) that they also admitted to their
yet it was visible, that (15) unreserved confidence two others,
Nathaniel Fiennes, the second son (45) whom I will now
of the Lord Say, and Sir Harry describe,—Nathaniel Fiennes,
Vane, eldest son to the Secretary, second son of Lord Say, and Sir
and Treasurer of the House, were Harry Vane, eldest son of the
received by them with full Secretary, and Treasurer of the
confidence and without reserve. House.
The former, being a man of good Nathaniel Fiennes, a man of good
parts of learning, and after some parts, was educated at New
years spent in New College in College, Oxford, where[22] his
Oxford, (43) of which his father family claimed and enjoyed some
had been formerly fellow, (43) privileges in virtue of their
that family pretending[23] and kindred to the founder, and
enjoying many privileges there, as where[22] his father had formerly
of kin to the founder, (43) (19) been a fellow. He afterwards spent
had spent his time abroad in some time in Geneva and in the
Geneva and amongst the cantons of cantons of Switzerland, where[22]
Switzerland, (30) where he he increased that natural
improved his disinclination to the antipathy to the Church which he
Church, with which milk he had had imbibed almost with his
been nursed. From his travels he mother's milk.[24] By a singular
returned through Scotland (52) coincidence, he came home through
(which[24] few travellers took in Scotland (not a very common route
their way home) at the time when for returning travellers) just
(5) that rebellion was in bud: when the Scotch rebellion was in
(30) (43) (44) and was very little bud. For some time he was scarcely
known, except amongst (5) that known beyond the narrow and
people, which conversed (47 a) exclusive circle of his sect,
wholly amongst themselves, until until at last he appeared in
he was now (15) found in Parliament. Then, indeed, it was
Parliament, (30) (43) (44) when quickly discovered that he was
it was quickly discovered that, likely to fulfil even the fond
as he was the darling of his hopes of his father and the high
father, so (5) he was like to promise of many years.
make good whatsoever he had
for many years promised.
(5) The other, Sir H. Vane, was Fiennes' coadjutor, Sir H. Vane,
a man of great natural parts[25] was a man of great natural
(45) and of very profound ability.[25] Quick in understanding
dissimulation, of a quick and impenetrable in dissembling,
conception, and of very ready, he could also speak with
sharp, and weighty expression. He promptness, point, and weight. His
had an (50) unusual aspect, which, singular appearance, though it
though it might naturally proceed might naturally proceed from his
from his father and mother, parents, who were not noted for
neither of which were beautiful their beauty, yet impressed men
persons, yet (19) made men think with the belief that he had in him
there was somewhat in him of something extraordinary, an
extraordinary: and (52) his whole impression that was confirmed by
life made good that imagination. the whole of his life. His
Within a very short time after he behaviour at Oxford, where he
returned from his studies in studied at Magdalen College, was
Magdalen College in Oxford, where, not characterized, in spite of the
(43) though he was under the care supervision of a very worthy
of a very worthy tutor, he lived tutor, by a severe morality. Soon
not with great exactness, (43) he after leaving Oxford he spent some
spent some little time in France, little time in France, and more in
and more in Geneva, and, (43) Geneva. After returning to
after his return into England, England, he conceived an intense
(38) contracted a full prejudice hatred not only against the
and bitterness against the Church, government of the Church, which
both against the form of the was disliked by many, but also
government and the Liturgy, (43) against the Liturgy, which was
which was generally in great held in great and general
reverence, (15 a) even with reverence.
many of those who were not
friends to (5) the other. In Incurring or seeming to incur, by
his giddiness, which then much his giddiness, the displeasure of
displeased, or seemed to his father, who at that time,
displease, (30) (43) his father, beside strictly conforming to the
who still appeared highly Church himself, was very bitter
conformable, and exceedingly sharp against Nonconformists, the young
against those who were not, Vane left his home for New
(5) he transported himself into England.
New England, (43) a colony within
few years before planted by a This colony had been planted a few
mixture of all religions,[26] which years before by men of all sorts of
disposed the professors to dislike religions, and their
the government of the Church; who differences[26] disposed them to
(30) (43) (44) were qualified by dislike the government of the
the king's charter to choose their Church. Now, it happened that their
own government and governors, privilege (accorded by the king's
under the obligation, "that every charter) of choosing their own
man should take the oaths of government and governors was
allegiance and supremacy;" (30) subject to this obligation, "that
(43) (5) which all the first every man should take the oaths of
planters did, when they received allegiance and supremacy." These
their charter, before they oaths had been taken, not only by
transported themselves from hence, all the original planters, on
nor was there in many years after receiving their charter, before
the least scruple amongst them of leaving England, but also for many
complying with those obligations: years afterwards, without exciting
so far men were, in the infancy the slightest scruple. Indeed,
(15) of their schism, from scruples against lawful oaths were
refusing to take lawful oaths. unknown[27] in the infancy of the
(45) He was no sooner landed English schism. But with the
there, but his parts made him arrival of Vane all this was
quickly taken notice of, (26) and changed. No sooner had he landed
very probably his quality, being than his ability, and perhaps to
the eldest son of a some extent his position, as eldest
Privy-councillor, might give him son of a Privy-councillor,
some advantage; insomuch (51) recommended him to notice: and at
that, when the next season came the next election he was chosen
for the election of their Governor.
magistrates, he was chosen their
governor: (30) (45) (43) in which In his new post, his restless and
place he had so ill fortune (26) unquiet imagination found
(his working and unquiet fancy opportunity for creating and
raising and infusing a thousand diffusing a thousand conscientious
scruples of conscience, which (5) scruples that had not been brought
they had not brought over with over, or ever even heard of, by the
them, nor heard of before) (19) colonists. His government proved a
that he unsatisfied with failure: and, mutually
them and they with him, dissatisfied, (45) governed and
he retransported himself governor parted. Vane returned
into England; (30) (43) (44) to England, but not till he had
having sowed such seed of accomplished his mischievous task,
dissension there, as grew up too not till he had sown the seeds of
prosperously, and miserably those miserable dissensions which
divided the poor colony into afterwards grew only too
several factions, and divisions prosperously, till they split the
and persecutions of each (15 a) wretched colony into distinct,
other, (30) (43) which still hostile, and mutually persecuting
continue to the great (54) factions. His handiwork still
prejudice of that plantation: remains, and it is owing to (15)
insomuch as some of (5) them, him that some of the colonists,
upon the ground of their first on the pretext of liberty of
expedition, liberty of conscience, conscience, the original cause of
have withdrawn themselves from (5) their emigration, have withdrawn
their jurisdiction, and obtained themselves from the old colonial
other charters from the king, by jurisdiction and have obtained
which, (30) (43) in other forms of fresh charters from the king.
government, they have enlarged These men have established new
their plantations, within new forms of government, unduly
limits adjacent to (5) (15 a) enlarged their boundaries, and set
the other.their plantations, up rival settlements on the
within new limits adjacent to (5) borders of the original colony.
(15 a) the other.
FOOTNOTES:
[19] The original metaphor uses the crown as a prop, which seems a
confusion. Though the metaphor is so common as scarcely to be regarded
as a metaphor, it is better to avoid the appearance of confusion.
[20] We sometimes say, briefly but not perhaps idiomatically, "the
then sovereign," "the then temper," &c.
[21] The personality of the tempters and organizers of the conspiracy
is purposely kept in the background.
[22] The relative is retained in the first two cases, because it
conveys the reason why Fiennes was educated at New College; and in
the third case, because the increased "antipathy" is regarded as the
natural consequence of the residence in Calvinistic Geneva.
[23] Claiming.
[24] An insinuation of sedition seems intended.
[25] This sentence is a preliminary summary of what follows.
[26] If "which" is used here according to Rule (8), the meaning is,
(a) "and their differences;" if it is used for "that," the meaning
will be, (b) "all religions that were of a nature to dispose &c." I
believe (a) is the meaning; but I have found difference of opinion
on the question.
[27] The following words appear to be emphatic, bringing out the
difference between the infancy and the development of schism.
BURNET.
The principal faults in Burnet's style are (a) the use of
heterogeneous sentences (see 43); (b) the want of suspense (see 30);
(c) the ambiguous use of pronouns (see 5); (d) the omission of
connecting adverbs and conjunctions, and an excessive use of and
(see 44); and (e) an abruptness in passing from one topic to another
(see 45). The correction of these faults necessarily lengthens the
altered version.
ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION.
And his maintaining the honour of He also gratified the English
the nation in all foreign feeling of self-respect by
countries gratified the (1) maintaining the honour of the
vanity which is very natural nation in all foreign countries.
(50) to Englishmen; (30) (43) of So jealous was he on this point
which he was so (15) (17 a) that, though he was not a crowned
careful that, though he was not head, he yet secured for his
a crowned head, yet his (40 a) ambassadors all the respect that
ambassadors had all the respects had been paid to the ambassadors
paid them which our (15) kings' of our kings. The king, he said,
ambassadors ever had: he said (6 received respect simply as the
b) the dignity of the crown nation's representative head,
was upon the account of the and, since the nation was the
nation, of which the king was same, the same respect should
(50) only the representative be paid to the[28] nation's
head; so, the nation being the ministers.
same, he would have the same
regards paid to (41) his
ministers.
Another[29] instance of (5) this The following instance of jealousy
pleased him much. Blake with the for the national honour pleased
fleet happened (50) to be at him much. When Blake was at Malaga
Malaga before he made war upon with his fleet, before his war
Spain: (44) and some of his with Spain, it happened that some
seamen went ashore, and met the of his sailors going ashore and
Host carried about; (44) and not meeting the procession of the
only paid no respect to it, but Host, not only paid no respect to
laughed at those who did; (43) it, but even laughed at those who
(30) (51) so one of the priests did. Incited by one of the priests
put the people upon resenting this to resent the indignity, the
indignity; and they fell upon people fell on the scoffers and
(5) them and beat them severely. beat them severely. On their
When they returned to their ship return to the ship the seamen
(5) they complained of (5) complained of this ill-usage,
this usage; and upon that Blake whereupon Blake sent a messenger
sent a trumpet to the viceroy to to the viceroy to demand the
demand the priest who was the priest who was the instigator of
chief (1) instrument in that the outrage. The viceroy answered
ill-usage. The viceroy answered that he could not touch him, as he
he had no authority over the had no authority over the priests.
(15) priests, and so could not To this Blake replied, that he did
dispose of him. Blake upon that not intend to inquire to whom the
sent him word that he would not authority belonged, but, if the
inquire who had the (1) power to priest were not sent within three
send the priest to him, but if hours, he would burn the town. The
he were not sent within three townspeople being in no condition
hours, he would burn their town; to resist, the priest was at once
(43) and (5) they, being in no sent. On his arrival, he defended
condition to resist him, sent himself, alleging the insolence of
the priest to him, (43) (44) who the sailors. But the English (50)
justified himself upon the Admiral replied that a complaint
petulant behaviour of the seamen. should have been forwarded to him,
and then he would have punished
(44) Blake answered that, if (5) them severely, for none of his
he had sent a complaint to (5) sailors should be allowed to
him of(5) it, (5) he would affront the established religion
have punished them severely, since of any place where they touched.
(5) he would not suffer his "But," he added, "I take it ill
men to affront the established that you should set on your
religion of any place at which (5) countrymen to do my work; for I
he touched; but (5) (6) he will have all the world know that
took it ill, that he set on the an Englishman is only to be
Spaniards to do (5) it; for he punished, by an Englishman." Then,
would have all the world to know satisfied with having had the (50)
that an Englishman was only to be offender at his mercy, Blake
punished by an Englishman; (43) entertained him civilly and sent
(44) and so he treated the priest him back.
civilly, and sent him back (30),
being satisfied that he had him at
his mercy.
Cromwell was much delighted with Cromwell was much delighted with
(5) this, (43) and read the Blake's conduct. Reading the
letters in council with great letters in council with great
satisfaction; and said he (6) satisfaction, he said, "I hope I
hoped he should make the name of shall make the name of an
an Englishman as great as ever Englishman as much respected as
that of a Roman (15 a) had ever was the name of Roman."
been. (44) The States of Holland Among other countries the States
were in such dread of (5) him that of Holland were in such dread of
they took care to give him no sort Cromwell that they took care to
of umbrage; (43) (44) and when give him no sort of umbrage.
at any time the king or his Accordingly, whenever the king or
brothers came to see their sister his brothers came to see the
the Princess Royal, (23) within a Princess Royal their sister, they
day or two after, (5) they used were always warned in a day or two
to send a deputation to let them by a deputation that Cromwell had
know that Cromwell had required of required of the States to give
the States that (5) they should them no harbourage.
give them no harbour.
* * * * * * * * * *
Cromwell's favourite alliance was The free kingdom of Sweden was
Sweden.[30] (44) Carolus Gustavus Cromwell's favourite ally; not
and he lived in great conjunction only under Charles Gustavus, with
of counsels. (44) Even Algernon whom he was on most confidential
Sydney, (10 a) who was not terms, but also under Christina.
inclined to think or speak well of Both these sovereigns had just
kings, commended him (5) to me; notions of public liberty; at
and said he (5) had just least, Algernon Sydney, a man
notions of public liberty; (44) certainly not prejudiced in favour
(43) and added, that Queen of royalty, assured me this was
Christina seemed to have them true of Gustavus. He also held the
likewise. But (44) she was same opinion of Queen Christina;
much changed from that, when but, if so, she was much changed
I waited on her at Rome; for when I waited on her at Rome; for
she complained of us as a factious she then complained of the factious
nation, that did not readily and unruly spirit of our nation.
comply with the commands (47 a)
of our princes. (44) All Italy All Italy, no less than
trembled at the name of Cromwell, Holland,[31] trembled at the name
and seemed under a (1) panic as of Cromwell, and dreaded him till
long as he lived; (43) his fleet he died. Nor durst the Turks
scoured the Mediterranean; and the offend the great (50) Protector
Turks durst not offend him; but whose fleet scoured the
delivered up Hyde, who kept up the Mediterranean; and they even gave
character of an ambassador from up Hyde, who, for keeping up in
the king there (23) (43), and was Turkey the character of ambassador
brought over and executed for (5) from the king, was brought to
it. England and executed.
(44) (11 a) The putting the In another instance of severity
brother of the king of Portugal's towards foreigners—the execution
ambassador to death for murder, of the brother of the Portuguese
was (11 a) carrying justice ambassador for murder—Cromwell
very far; (43) since, though in carried justice very far. For,
the strictness of the law of though in strictness the law of
nations, it is only the nations exempts from foreign
ambassador's own person that is jurisdiction the ambassador alone,
exempted from (4) any authority yet in practice the exemption has
(47 a) but his master's that extended to the whole of the
sends him, yet the practice has ambassador's suite.
gone in favour of all that the
ambassador owned (47 a) to Successful abroad, Cromwell was no
belong to him. (41) (44) Cromwell less successful at home in
showed his good (11) selecting able and worthy men for
understanding in nothing more public duties, especially for the
than in seeking[32] out capable courts of law. In nothing did he
and worthy men for all employments, show more clearly his great
but most particularly for the natural insight, and nothing
courts of law, (43) (30 a) contributed more to his popularity.
(10 a) which gave a general
satisfaction.
FOOTNOTES:
[28] The meaning is "his, and therefore the nation's, ministers."
There is a kind of antithesis between "the nation" and "the nation's
ministers."
[29] No instance has yet been mentioned.
[30] The thought that is implied, and should be expressed, by the
words, is this: "Cromwell's favourite ally was a free country."
[31] The remarks about Christina are a digression, and Burnet is now
returning to the respect in which Cromwell was held by foreign
nations.
[32] He not only sought, but sought successfully. That "find" is not
necessarily implied by "seek out" seems proved by the use of the word
in the Authorized Version, 2 Tim. ii. 17: "He sought me out very
diligently, and found me."
BISHOP BUTLER.
The principal faults in this style are (a) a vague use of pronouns
(5), and sometimes (b) the use of a phrase, where a word would be
enough (47 a).
ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION.
Some persons, (15) upon Some persons avowedly reject all
pretence[33] of the sufficiency of revelation as[34]essentially
the light of Nature, avowedly incredible and necessarily
reject all revelation as, in its fictitious, on the ground that the
(47 a) very notion, light of Nature is in itself
incredible, and what (47 a) sufficient. And assuredly, had the
must be fictitious. And indeed light of Nature been sufficient in
(32) it is certain that no such a sense as to render
revelation would have been given, revelation needless or useless, no
(32) had the light of Nature been revelation would ever have been
sufficient in such a sense as to given. But let any man consider
render (5) one not[35] wanting, the spiritual darkness that once
or useless. But no (15 b) man in (41) prevailed in the heathen
seriousness and simplicity can world before revelation, and that
possibly think it (5) so, who (41) still prevails in those
considers the state of religion in regions that have not yet received
the heathen world before the light of revealed truth; above
revelation, and its (5) present all, let him mark not merely the
state in those (11) places (8) natural inattention and ignorance
which have borrowed no light of the masses, but also the
from (5) it; particularly (19) the doubtful language held even by a
doubtfulness of some of the (12) Socrates on even so vital a
greatest men concerning things of subject as[36] the immortality of
the utmost (11) importance, as the soul; and then can he in
well as the (15 a) natural seriousness and sincerity maintain
inattention and ignorance of that the light of Nature is
mankind in general. It is (34) sufficient?
impossible to say (12) who would
have been able to have reasoned It is of course impossible to deny
out that whole system which we that some second[36] Aristotle
call natural religion, (30) in its might have reasoned out, in its
genuine simplicity, clear of genuine simplicity and without
superstition; but there is a touch of superstition, the
certainly no ground to affirm whole of that system which we
that the generality could. call natural religion. But there
(44) If they could, there is is certainly no ground for
no sort of probability that affirming that this complicated
they would. (44) Admitting there process would have been possible
were, they would highly want a for ordinary men. Even if they had
standing admonition to remind them had the power, there is no
of (5) it, and inculcate it upon probability that they would have
them. And further still, were (5) had the inclination; and, even if
they as much disposed (47 a) we admit the probable inclination,
to attend to religion as the they would still need some
better sort of men (15 a) are; standing admonition, whereby
yet, even upon this supposition, natural religion might be
there would be various occasions suggested and inculcated. Still
for supernatural instruction and further, even if we suppose these
assistance, and the greatest ordinary men to be as attentive to
advantages (50) might be religion as men of a better sort,
afforded (15 a) by (5) yet even then there would be
them. So that, to say revelation various occasions when
is a thing superfluous, what supernatural instruction and
there (47 a) was no need of, assistance might be most
and what can be of (47 a) no beneficially bestowed.
service, is, I think, to talk
wildly and at random. Nor would it Therefore, to call revelation
be more extravagant to affirm that superfluous, needless, and
(40 a) mankind is so entirely useless, is, in my opinion, to
(40 a) at ease in the present talk wildly and at random. A man
state, and (40 a) life so might as reasonably assert that we
completely (40 a) happy, that are so entirely at ease and so
(5) it is a contradiction to completely happy in this present
suppose (40 a) our condition life that our condition cannot
capable of being in any respect without contradiction be supposed
(47 a) better.—(Analogy of capable of being in any way
Religion, part ii. chap. 1.) improved.
FOOTNOTES:
[33] "To pretend" once meant "to put forward," "maintain."
[34] It has been suggested, however, that by "in its very notion
incredible," is meant "inconceivable."
[35] "Wanting" is used for modern "wanted."
[36] This use of the particular for the general would be out of place
in Butler's style, but it adds clearness.
BREVITY.
SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON.
The following extract exhibits examples of tautology and lengthiness.
The "implied statement" (50) can often be used as a remedy, but, more
often, the best remedy is omission.
ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION.
The Russian empire is (50) a Russia, with her vast strength and
state of (54) such vast boundless resources, is obviously
strength and boundless destined to exercise on the course
resources, that it is of history a great and lasting
obviously destined to make a influence. The slowness of her
great and lasting impression on progress only renders her
human affairs. Its (50) progress durability more probable. The
has been slow, but (5) it[37] is Russian Empire has not, like the
only on that account the more empires of Alexander the Great and
likely to be durable. (5) It has Napoleon, been raised to sudden
not suddenly risen to greatness, greatness by the genius of
like the empire of Alexander in individuals or the accidents of
ancient (19) (31), or that of fortune, but has been slowly
Napoleon in modern, times, from enlarged and firmly consolidated
the force of individual genius, or by well-guided ambition and
the accidents of (54) casual persevering energy,[38] during a
fortune, but has slowly advanced, long succession of ages.
and (40 a) been firmly
consolidated (15) during a
succession of ages, from the
combined influence of ambition
skilfully directed and energy (15
a) perseveringly applied.
* * * * * * * * * *
The extent and fertility of the The extent and fertility of her
Russian territory are such (54) territory furnish unparalleled
as to furnish facilities of facilities for the increase of her
increase and elements of strength population and power. European
which no nation (47 a) in the Russia, that is, Russia to the
world enjoys. European west of the Ural Mountains,
Russia—that is, Russia to the contains one million two hundred
westward of the Ural thousand square geographical
Mountains—contains a hundred and miles, or ten times the surface of
fifty thousand four hundred square Great Britain and Ireland.
marine leagues, or about one
million two hundred thousand
square geographical miles, being
ten times the surface of the
British Islands, which contain,
including Ireland, one hundred and
twenty-two thousand. Great part, This vast territory is intersected
no doubt, of this immense (54, by no mountain ranges, no arid
see below) territory is covered deserts; and though much of it is
with forests, or (40 a) lies rendered almost unproductive of
so far to the north as to be food either by the denseness of
almost unproductive of food; but forests, or by the severity of the
no ranges of mountains or arid northern winter, yet almost all,
deserts intersect the vast (54, except that part which touches
see above) extent, and almost the Arctic snows, is capable of
the whole, excepting that which yielding something for the use
touches the Arctic snows, is of man.
capable of yielding something for
the use of man. The (3) (54) The steppes of the south present
boundless steppes of the south an inexhaustible pasturage to
present (54) inexhaustible those nomad tribes whose numerous
fields of pasturage, and give and incomparable horsemen form the
birth to those nomad tribes, in chief defence of the empire.
whose numerous and incomparable
horsemen the chief defence of the
empire,[39] as of all Oriental
states, (15 a) is to be found.
The rich arable lands in the heart The rich arable lands in the
of the (54) empire produce an interior produce grain enough to
(2) incalculable quantity of support four times the present
grain, capable not only of population of the empire, and yet
maintaining four times (5) its leave a vast surplus to be
present inhabitants, but affording transported by the Dnieper, the
a vast surplus for exportation by Volga, and their tributaries, into
the Dnieper, the Volga, and their the Euxine or other seas.
tributary streams, (30) which
form so many (54) natural
outlets into the Euxine or other
seas; (44) while the cold and Lastly, the cold bleak plains
shivering plains which stretch stretching towards Archangel and
towards Archangel and the shores towards the shores of the White
of the White Sea are (48) covered Sea, and covered with immense
with immense forests of fir and forests of oak and fir, furnish
oak, furnishing at once (54)[40] materials for shipbuilding and
inexhaustible materials for supplies of fuel that will for
shipbuilding and supplies of fuel. many generations supersede the
(54) These ample stores for many necessity of searching for coal.
generations will supersede the
necessity of searching in the (14
a) bowels of the earth for
the purposes of (54) warmth or
manufacture.
Formidable as the power of Russia Much as we may dread Russia for
is from the vast extent of its the vastness of her territory and
territory, and the great and of her rapidly increasing numbers,
rapidly increasing number of there is greater cause for fear
its (54) subjects, (5) it is in the military spirit and the
still more (5) so from the docility of her people.
military spirit and docile
disposition by which they are
(54)[41] distinguished. The
prevailing (54) passion of the A burning thirst for conquest is
nation is the (54) love of as prevalent a passion in Russia
conquest, and this (54) ardent as democratic ambition in the free
(54) desire, which (54) burns states of Western Europe. This
as (54) fiercely in them as passion is the unseen spring[2]
democratic ambition does in the which, while it retains the
free states of Western Europe, is Russians in the strictest
the unseen spring[42] which both discipline, unceasingly impels
retains them submissive (54) their united forces against all
under the standard of their adjoining states.
chief and impels their
accumulated forces in ceaseless The national energy, which is as
violence over all the adjoining great as the national territory,
states. The energies of the rarely wastes itself in disputes
people, great as[43] the territory about domestic grievances. For all
they inhabit, are rarely wasted in internal evils, how great soever,
internal disputes. Domestic the Russians hope to find a
grievances, how great soever, are compensation, and more than a
(54) overlooked in the thirst for compensation, in the conquest of
foreign aggrandizement. (15) In the world.
the conquest of the world the
people hope to find a
compensation, and more than a
compensation, (15 a) for all
the evils of their interior
administration.
FOOTNOTES:
[37] Apparently "it" means, not "progress," but the "Russian empire."
[38] Not "energy," but "a long succession of ages," needs to be
emphasized.
[39] There is nothing in the context that requires the words, "as of
all Oriental states."
[40] If they were really "inexhaustible," the "necessity of searching
in the bowels of the earth" would be "superseded," not for "many," but
for all generations.
[41] The words can be implied, and besides they are expressed in the
following sentence.
[42] The metaphor is questionable; for a "spring," qua "spring,"
does not retain at all; and besides, "a passion" ought not to "burn"
in one line, and be a "spring" in the next.
[43] The meaning appears not to be, "great as" (is), i.e. "though
the territory is great."
THE END.
* * * * *
ENGLISH LESSONS
FOR
ENGLISH PEOPLE.
BY
THE REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M.A.,
HEAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL;
AND
J. R. SEELEY, M.A.,
PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.
"It is not so much a merit to know English as it is a shame not to
know it; and I look upon this knowledge as essential for an
Englishman, and not merely for a fine speaker."—ADAPTED FROM CICERO.
BOSTON:
ROBERTS BROTHERS.
1883.
[Illustration: QUI LEGIT REGIT]
UNIVERSITY PRESS: JOHN WILSON & SON,
CAMBRIDGE.
TO THE
REV. G. F. W. MORTIMER, D.D.,
Prebendary of St. Paul's Cathedral, late Head Master of the City of
London School.
DEAR DOCTOR MORTIMER,
We have other motives, beside the respect and gratitude which must be
felt for you by all those of your old pupils who are capable of
appreciating the work you did at the City of London School, for asking
you to let us dedicate to you a little book which we have entitled
"English Lessons for English People."
Looking back upon our school life, we both feel that among the many
educational advantages which we enjoyed under your care, there was
none more important than the study of the works of Shakspeare, to
which we and our school-fellows were stimulated by the special prizes
of the Beaufoy Endowment.
We owe you a debt of gratitude not always owed by pupils to their
teachers. Many who have passed into a life of engrossing activity
without having been taught at school to use rightly, or to appreciate
the right use of, their native tongue, feeling themselves foreigners
amid the language of their country, may turn with some point against
their teachers the reproach of banished Bolingbroke:—
My tongue's use is to me no more
Than an unstringed viol or a harp,
Or like a cunning instrument cased up,
Or, being open, put into his hands
That knows no touch to tune the harmony;
Within my mouth you have engaoled my tongue,
Doubly portcullis'd with my teeth and lips,
And dull, unfeeling, barren ignorance
Is made my gaoler to attend on me.
I am too old to fawn upon a nurse,
Too far in years to be a pupil now.
It is our pleasant duty, on the contrary, to thank you for encouraging
us to study the "cunning instrument" of our native tongue.
Our sense of the benefits which we derived from this study, and our
recollection that the study was at that time optional, and did not
affect more than a small number of the pupils, lead us to anticipate
that when once the English language and literature become recognized,
not as an optional but as a regular part of our educational course,
the advantages will be so great as to constitute nothing short of a
national benefit.
The present seems to be a critical moment for English instruction. The
subject has excited much attention of late years; many schools have
already taken it up; others are on the point of doing so; it forms an
important part of most Government and other examinations. But there is
a complaint from many teachers that they cannot teach English for want
of text-books and manuals; and, as the study of English becomes year
by year more general, this complaint makes itself more and more
distinctly heard. To meet this want we have written the following
pages. If we had had more time, we might perhaps have been tempted to
aim at producing a more learned and exhaustive book on the subject;
but, setting aside want of leisure, we feel that a practical
text-book, and not a learned or exhaustive treatise, is what is wanted
at the present crisis.
We feel sure that you will give a kindly welcome to our little book,
as an attempt, however imperfect, to hand on the torch which you have
handed to us; we beg you also to accept it as a token of our sincere
gratitude for more than ordinary kindnesses, and to believe us
Your affectionate pupils,
J. R. SEELEY.
EDWIN A. ABBOTT.
* * * * *
Messrs. Roberts Brothers' Publications.
ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE. By Rev. E. A. ABBOTT, M.A., and
Prof. J. R. SEELEY, M.A. Part I.—Vocabulary. Part II—Diction. Part
III.—Metre. Part IV.—Hints on Selection and Arrangement. Appendix.
16mo. Price $1.50.
From the London Athenæum.
The object of this book is evidently a practical one. It is
intended for ordinary use by a large circle of readers; and
though designed principally for boys, may be read with advantage
by many of more advanced years. One of the lessons which it
professes to teach, "to use the right word in the right place,"
is one which no one should despise. The accomplishment is a rare
one, and many of the hints here given are truly admirable.
From the Southern Review.
The study of Language can never be exhausted. Every time it is
looked at by a man of real ability and culture, some new phase
starts into view. The origin of Language; its relations to the
mind; its history; its laws; its development; its struggles; its
triumphs; its devices; its puzzles; its ethics,—every thing
about it is full of interest.
Here is a delightful book, by two men of recognized
authority,—the head Master of London School, and the Professor
of Modern History in the University of Cambridge, the notable
author of "Ecce Homo." The book is so comprehensive in its scope
that it seems almost miscellaneous. It treats of the vocabulary
of the English Language; Diction as appropriate to this or that
sort of composition; selection and arguments of topics; Metre,
and an Appendix on Logic. All this in less than three hundred
pages. Within this space so many subjects cannot be treated
exhaustively; and no one is, unless we may except Metre, to which
about eighty pages are devoted, and about which all seems to be
said that is worth saying,—possibly more. But on each topic some
of the best things are said in a very stimulating way. The
student will desire to study more thoroughly the subject into
which such pleasant openings are here given; and the best
prepared teacher will be thankful for the number of striking
illustrations gathered up to his hand.
The abundance and freshness of the quotations makes the volume
very attractive reading, without reference to its didactic value.
Sold by all booksellers. Mailed, postpaid, by the Publishers,
ROBERTS BROTHERS, BOSTON.
PREFACE.
This book is not intended to supply the place of an English Grammar.
It presupposes a knowledge of Grammar and of English idiom in its
readers, and does not address itself to foreigners, but to those who,
having already a familiar knowledge of English, need help to write it
with taste and exactness. Some degree of knowledge is presumed in the
reader; nevertheless we do not presume that he possesses so much as to
render him incapable of profiting from lessons. Our object is, if
possible, not merely to interest, but to teach; to write lessons,
not essays,—lessons that may perhaps prove interesting to some who
have passed beyond the routine of school life, but still lessons, in
the strictest sense, adapted for school classes.
Aiming at practical utility, the book deals only with those
difficulties which, in the course of teaching, we have found to be
most common and most serious. For there are many difficulties, even
when grammatical accuracy has been attained, in the way of English
persons attempting to write and speak correctly. First, there is the
cramping restriction of an insufficient vocabulary; not merely a loose
and inexact apprehension of many words that are commonly used, and a
consequent difficulty in using them accurately, but also a total
ignorance of many other words, and an inability to use them at all;
and these last are, as a rule, the very words which are absolutely
necessary for the comprehension and expression of any thought that
deals with something more than the most ordinary concrete notions.
There is also a very common inability to appreciate the differences
between words that are at all similar. Lastly, where the pupil has
studied Latin, and trusts too much for his knowledge of English words
to his knowledge of their Latin roots, there is the possibility of
misderiving and misunderstanding a word, owing to ignorance of the
changes of letters introduced in the process of derivation; and, on
the other hand, there is the danger of misunderstanding and
pedantically misusing words correctly derived, from an ignorance of
the changes of meaning which a word almost always experiences in
passing from one language to another. The result of all this
non-understanding or slovenly half-understanding of words is a habit
of slovenly reading and slovenly writing, which when once acquired is
very hard to shake off.
Then, following on the difficulties attending the use of words, there
are others attending the choice and arrangement of words. There is the
danger of falling into "poetic prose," of thinking it necessary to
write "steed" or "charger" instead of "horse," "ire" instead of
"anger," and the like; and every teacher, who has had much experience
in looking over examination papers, will admit that this is a danger
to which beginners are very liable. Again, there is the temptation to
shrink with a senseless fear from using a plain word twice in the same
page, and often from using a plain word at all. This unmanly dread of
simplicity, and of what is called "tautology," gives rise to a
patchwork made up of scraps of poetic quotations, unmeaning
periphrases, and would-be humorous circumlocutions,—a style of all
styles perhaps the most objectionable and offensive, which may be
known and avoided by the name of Fine Writing. Lastly, there is the
danger of obscurity, a fault which cannot be avoided without extreme
care, owing to the uninflected nature of our language.
All these difficulties and dangers are quite as real, and require as
much attention, and are fit subjects for practical teaching in our
schools, quite as much as many points which, at present, receive
perhaps an excessive attention in some of our text-books. To use the
right word in the right place is an accomplishment not less valuable
than the knowledge of the truth (carefully recorded in most English
Grammars, and often inflicted as a task upon younger pupils) that the
plural of cherub is cherubim, and the feminine of bull is cow.
To smooth the reader's way through these difficulties is the object of
the first three Parts of this book. Difficulties connected with
Vocabulary are considered first. The student is introduced, almost at
once, to Synonyms. He is taught how to define a word, with and
without the aid of its synonyms. He is shown how to eliminate from a
word whatever is not essential to its meaning. The processes of
Definition and Elimination are carefully explained: a system or
scheme is laid down which he can exactly follow; and examples are
subjoined, worked out to illustrate the method which he is to pursue.
A system is also given by which the reader may enlarge his vocabulary,
and furnish himself easily and naturally with those general or
abstract terms which are often misunderstood and misused, and still
more often not understood and not used at all. Some information is
also given to help the reader to connect words with their roots, and
at the same time to caution him against supposing that, because he
knows the roots of a word, he necessarily knows the meaning of the
word itself. Exercises are interspersed throughout this Part which can
be worked out with, or without, an English Etymological
Dictionary,[44] as the nature of the case may require. The exercises
have not been selected at random; many of them have been subjected to
the practical test of experience, and have been used in class
teaching.
The Second Part deals with Diction. It attempts to illustrate with
some detail the distinction—often ignored by those who are beginning
to write English, and sometimes by others also—between the Diction of
Prose, and that of Poetry. It endeavors to dissipate that excessive
and vulgar dread of tautology which, together with a fondness for
misplaced pleasantry, gives rise to the vicious style described above.
It gives some practical rules for writing a long sentence clearly and
impressively; and it also examines the difference between slang,
conversation, and written prose. Both for translating from foreign
languages into English, and for writing original English composition,
these rules have been used in teaching, and, we venture to think, with
encouraging results.
A Chapter on Simile and Metaphor concludes the subject of Diction. We
have found, in the course of teaching, that a great deal of confusion
in speaking and writing, and still more in reading and attempting to
understand the works of our classical English authors, arises from the
inability to express the literal meaning conveyed in a Metaphor. The
application of the principle of Proportion to the explanation of
Metaphor has been found to dissipate much of this confusion. The
youngest pupils readily learn how to "expand a Metaphor into its
Simile;" and it is really astonishing to see how many difficulties
that perplex young heads, and sometimes old ones too, vanish at once
when the key of "expansion" is applied. More important still, perhaps,
is the exactness of thought introduced by this method. The pupil knows
that, if he cannot expand a metaphor, he does not understand it. All
teachers will admit that to force a pupil to see that he does not
understand any thing is a great stride of progress. It is difficult
to exaggerate the value of a process which makes it impossible for a
pupil to delude himself into the belief that he understands when he
does not understand.
Metre is the subject of the Third Part. The object of this Part (as
also, in a great measure, of the Chapter just mentioned belonging to
the Second Part) is to enable the pupil to read English Poetry with
intelligence, interest, and appreciation. To teach any one how to read
a verse so as to mark the metre on the one hand, without on the other
hand converting the metrical line into a monotonous doggerel, is not
so easy a task as might be supposed. Many of the rules stated in this
Part have been found of practical utility in teaching pupils to hit
the mean. Rules and illustrations have therefore been given, and the
different kinds of metre and varieties of the same metre have been
explained at considerable length.
This Chapter may seem to some to enter rather too much into detail. We
desire, however, to urge as an explanation, that in all probability
the study of English metre will rapidly assume more importance in
English schools. At present, very little is generally taught, and
perhaps known, about this subject. In a recent elaborate edition of
the works of Pope, the skill of that consummate master of the art of
epigrammatic versification is impugned because in one of his lines he
suffers the to receive the metrical accent. When one of the
commonest customs (for it is in no sense a license) of English
poets—a custom sanctioned by Shakspeare, Dryden, Milton, Wordsworth,
Byron, Shelley, and Tennyson—can be censured as a fault, and this in
a leading edition of a leading poet of our literature, it must be
evident that much still remains to be done in teaching English Metre.
At present this Part may seem too detailed. Probably, some few years
hence, when a knowledge of English Metre has become more widely
diffused, it will seem not detailed enough.
The Fourth Part (like the Chapter on Metaphor) is concerned not more
with English than with other languages. It treats of the different
Styles of Composition, the appropriate subjects for each, and the
arrangement of the subject-matter. We hope that this may be of some
interest to the general reader, as well as of practical utility in the
higher classes of schools. It seems desirable that before pupils begin
to write essays, imaginary dialogues, speeches, and poems, they should
receive some instruction as to the difference of arrangement in a
poem, a speech, a conversation, and an essay.
An Appendix adds a few hints on some Errors in Reasoning. This
addition may interfere with the symmetry of the book; but if it is
found of use, the utility will be ample compensation. In reading
literature, pupils are continually meeting instances of false
reasoning, which, if passed over without comment, do harm, and, if
commented upon, require some little basis of knowledge in the pupil to
enable him to understand the explanation. Without entering into the
details of formal Logic, we have found it possible to give pupils some
few hints which have appeared to help them. The hints are so
elementary, and so few, that they cannot possibly delude the youngest
reader into imagining that they are any thing more than hints. They
may induce him hereafter to study the subject thoroughly in a complete
treatise, when he has leisure and opportunity; but, in any case, a boy
will leave school all the better prepared for the work of life,
whatever that work may be, if he knows the meaning of induction, and
has been cautioned against the error, post hoc, ergo propter hoc. No
lesson, so far as our experience in teaching goes, interests and
stimulates pupils more than this; and our experience of debating
societies, in the higher forms of schools, forces upon us the
conviction that such lessons are not more interesting than necessary.
Questions on the different paragraphs have been added at the end of
the book, for the purpose of enabling the student to test his
knowledge of the contents, and also to serve as home lessons to be
prepared by pupils in classes.[45]
A desire, expressed by some teachers of experience, that these lessons
should be published as soon as possible, has rather accelerated the
publication. Some misprints and other inaccuracies may possibly be
found in the following pages, in consequence of the short time Which
has been allowed us for correcting them. Our thanks are due to several
friends who have kindly assisted us in this task, and who have also
aided us with many valuable and practical suggestions. Among these we
desire to mention Mr. Joseph Payne, whose labors on Norman French are
well known; Mr. T.G. Philpotts, late Fellow of New College, Oxford,
and one of the Assistant Masters of Rugby School; Mr. Edwin Abbott,
Head Master of the Philological School; Mr. Howard Candler,
Mathematical Master of Uppingham School; and the Rev. R. H. Quick, one
of the Assistant Masters of Harrow School.
In conclusion, we repeat that we do not wish our book to be regarded
as an exhaustive treatise, or as adapted for the use of foreigners. It
is intended primarily for boys, but, in the present unsatisfactory
state of English education, we entertain a hope that it may possibly
be found not unfit for some who have passed the age of boyhood; and in
this hope we have ventured to give it the title of English Lessons
for English People.
FOOTNOTES:
[44] An Etymological Dictionary is necessary for pupils studying the
First Part. Chambers's or Ogilvie's will answer the purpose.
[45] Some of the passages quoted to illustrate style are intended to
be committed to memory and used as repetition-lessons.—See pp. 180,
181, 212, 237, 238, etc.
* * * * *
ON THE RIGHT USE OF BOOKS.
A LECTURE. By WILLIAM P. ATKINSON, Professor of English and History in
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 16mo. Cloth. Price 50
cents.
"Full of good sense, sound taste, and quiet humor…. It is the
easiest thing in the world to waste time over books, which are
merely tools of knowledge like any other tools…. It is the
function of a good book not only to fructify, but to inspire, not
only to fill the memory with evanescent treasures, but to enrich
the imagination with forms of beauty and goodness which leave a
lasting impression on the character."—N. Y. Tribune.
"Contains so many wise suggestions concerning methods in study
and so excellent a summary of the nature and principles of a
really liberal education that it well deserves publication for
the benefit of the reading public. Though it makes only a slight
volume, its quality in thought and style is so admirable that all
who are interested in the subject of good education will give to
it a prominent and honorable position among the many books upon
education which have recently been published. For it takes only a
brief reading to perceive that in this single lecture the results
of wide experience in teaching and of long study of the true
principles of education are generalized and presented in a few
pages, each one of which contains so much that it might be easily
expanded into an excellent chapter."—The Library Table.
* * * * *
READING AS A FINE ART.
By ERNEST LEGOUVÉ, of the Académie Française. Translated from the
Ninth Edition by ABBY LANGDON ALGER. 16mo. Cloth. 50 cents.
(Dedication.)
TO THE SCHOLARS OF THE HIGH AND NORMAL SCHOOL.
For you this sketch was written: permit me to dedicate it to you,
in fact, to intrust it to your care. Pupils to-day, to-morrow you
will be teachers; to-morrow, generation after generation of youth
will pass through your guardian hands. An idea received by you
must of necessity reach thousands of minds. Help me, then, to
spread abroad the work in which you have some share, and allow me
to add to the great pleasure of having numbered you among my
hearers the still greater happiness of calling you my assistants.
E. LEGOUVÉ.
We commend this valuable little book to the attention of teachers
and others interested in the instruction of the pupils of our
public schools. It treats of the "First Steps in Reading,"
"Learning to Read," "Should we read as we talk," "The Use and
Management of the Voice," "The Art of Breathing,"
"Pronunciation," "Stuttering," "Punctuation," "Readers and
Speakers," "Reading as a Means of Criticism," "On Reading
Poetry," &c., and makes a strong claim as to the value of reading
aloud, as being the most wholesome of gymnastics, for to
strengthen the voice is to strengthen the whole system and
develop vocal power.
* * * * *
HOW TO PARSE.
AN ATTEMPT TO APPLY THE PRINCIPLES OF SCHOLARSHIP TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
With Appendixes in Analysis, Spelling, and Punctuation. By EDWIN A.
ABBOTT, M.A., Head Master of the City of London School. 16mo. Cloth.
Price $1.00.
"We recommend this little book to the careful attention of
teachers and others interested in instruction. In the hands of an
able teacher, the book should help to relieve parsing from the
reproach of being the bane of the school-room. The Etymological
Glossary of Grammatical Terms will also supply a long-felt want."
N.Y. Nation.
"'How to Parse' is likely to prove to teachers a valuable, and to
scholars an agreeable, substitute for most of the grammars in
common use."—Boston Daily Advertiser.
"The Rev. E.A. Abbott, whose books, 'English Lessons for English
People,' and 'How to Write Clearly,' have been accepted as
standard text-books on both sides of the ocean, has added another
work to his list of sensible treatises on the use of English. It
is called 'How to Parse,' and is best described by the further
title, 'An Attempt to apply the Principles of Scholarship to
English Grammar, with Appendices on Analysis, Spelling, and
Punctuation.' The little book is so sensible and so simple that
the greater number of its readers will perhaps forget to observe
that it is profoundly philosophical also, but it is so in the
best sense of the term."—N. Y. Evening Post.
"Of all subjects of study, it may be safely admitted that grammar
possesses as a rule the fewest attractions for the youthful mind.
To prepare a work capable of imparting a thorough knowledge of
this important part of education in an attractive and
entertaining form, to many may appear extremely difficult, if not
impossible; nevertheless, the task has been accomplished in a
highly successful manner by Edwin A. Abbott, Head Master of the
City of London School, in a neat little volume entitled 'How to
Parse.' The author has succeeded admirably in combining with the
exercises a vast amount of useful information, which impacts to
the principles and rules of the main subject a degree of interest
that renders the study as attractive as history or fiction. The
value of the book is greatly increased by an excellent glossary
of grammatical forms and a nicely arranged index. The work
deserves the attention and consideration of teachers and pupils,
and will doubtless prove a highly popular addition to the list of
school-books."—N.Y. Graphic.
* * * * *
Messrs. Roberts Brothers' Publications.
GOETHE'S
HERMANN AND DOROTHEA.
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN
BY ELLEN FROTHINGHAM.
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.
Thin 8vo, cloth, gilt, bevelled boards. Price $2.00.
A cheaper edition, 16mo, cloth. Price $1.00.
"Miss Frothingham's translation is something to be glad of: it
lends itself kindly to perusal, and it presents Goethe's charming
poem in the metre of the original…. It is not a poem which
could be profitably used in an argument for the enlargement of
the sphere of woman: it teaches her subjection, indeed, from the
lips of a beautiful girl, which are always so fatally convincing;
but it has its charm, nevertheless, and will serve at least for
an agreeable picture of an age when the ideal woman was a
creature around which grew the beauty and comfort and security of
home."—Atlantic Monthly.
"The poem itself is bewitching. Of the same metre as Longfellow's
'Evangeline,' its sweet and measured cadences carry the reader
onward with a real pleasure as he becomes more and more absorbed
in this descriptive wooing song. It is a sweet volume to read
aloud in a select circle of intelligent friends."—Providence
Press.
"Miss Frothingham has done a good service, and done it well, in
translating this famous idyl, which has been justly called 'one
of the most faultless poems of modern times.' Nothing can surpass
the simplicity, tenderness, and grace of the original, and these
have been well preserved in Miss Frothingham's version. Her
success is worthy of the highest praise, and the mere English
reader can scarcely fail to read the poem with the same delight
with which it has always been read by those familiar with the
German. Its charming pictures of domestic life, the strength and
delicacy of its characterization, the purity of tone and ardent
love of country which breathe through it, must always make it one
of the most admired of Goethe's works."—Boston Christian
Register.
Sold everywhere. Mailed, postpaid, by the Publishers,
ROBERTS BROTHERS, BOSTON
* * * * *
DR. ABBOTT'S WORKS.
HOW TO PARSE. An Attempt to Apply the Principles of Scholarship to
English Grammar. With Appendixes on Analysis, Spelling, and
Punctuation. 16mo. Cloth. Price, $1.00.
HOW TO TELL THE PARTS OF SPEECH. An Introduction to English Grammar.
American edition, revised and enlarged by Prof. JOHN G. R. McELROY, of
the University of Pennsylvania. 16mo. Cloth. Price, 75 cents.
HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY. Rules and Exercises in English Composition.
16mo. Cloth. Price, 60 cents.
ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE. Jointly by Dr. ABBOTT and Prof.
J. R. SEELEY, M.A., of Cambridge University, Eng. 16mo. Cloth. Price,
$1.50.
ROBERTS BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
Boston.
* * * * *
[Transcriber's Notes:
Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as
possible, including obsolete and variant spellings and other
inconsistencies.
The transcriber made the following changes to the text to correct
obvious errors:
1. p. 90, "inpugned" —> "impugned"
2. p. 51, to qualify "enemy. —> to qualify "enemy."
Text set in bold print is indicated by asterisks, i.e., *Bold*.
It is common to have footnotes referenced multiple times in the text.
Advertisements for Dr. Abbott's other works published by Roberts
Brothers have been moved from the front of the book to the end.
